Mining in the outer Continental Shelf and in the deep ocean

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

~~~~~ A~~~~~~~'I v~I1~

29 1.5~

H~~A8

1975

u.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON , SC 29405-2413

MINING
IN THE
OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF
AND IN
THE
DEEP OCEAN

Panel on
Operational Safety in Marine Mining

MARINE BOARD
ASSEMBLY OF ENGINEERING
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

Property of CSC Librzaz

'CC <:~ ~~NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Washington, D.C. 1975

'N
Oo
Z 8

NOTI CE

This is the report of an activity undertaken with
the approval of the Governing Board of the National
Research Council, representing and consisting of
members of the National Academy of Sciences, National
Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine.
Such approval signifies that the project is of national
importance and appropriate to the purposes and resources
of the National Research Council.

The members of the panel appointed to undertake the
project were selected for recognized competence and
with due consideration for the balance of disciplines
and expertise appropriate to the activity. Respon-
sibility for the substantive aspects of this report
rests with that panel.

Each report by a panel of the National Research
Council is reviewed by an independent group of quali-
fied individuals according to procedures established
and monitored by the National Academy of Sciences,
National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of
medicine. only upon satisfactory completion of the
review is the report approved for publication.

ISBN 0-309-02405-6
Library of Congress Card Catalog Number 75-24928

This report represents work supported by Contract
14-08-0001-14378 between the U.S. Geological Survey
and the National Academy of Sciences.

Available From:

Printing and Publishing Office copy 1i
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W./
Washington, D.C. 20418

Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE

As the worldwide demands for basic minerals increase and
some resources on land show signs of rapid decrease, it
is inevitable that the search for new sources will
extend to the oceans--the largely unexplored 71 percent
of the planet's surface. With modern technology, the
ocean depths are already tapped. At present, oil
extracted from the ocean floor supplies about 19 percent
of the world's need. By 1980 offshore production, it is
estimated, will account for between 30 percent and 40
percent of all the oil and perhaps 10 percent of the
natural gas. of possibly equal importance is the rich
reserve of hard minerals in the oceans--for example the
so-called manganese nodules, which vary in size and shape
from small pebbles to massive pavements, containing eco-
nomically attractive deposits of manganese, copper, cobalt,
and nickel.

It is important to assess the nature and extent of the
mineral resources of the seabed and to devise ways of
recovering them with a minimal impact on the environment.

This report attempts to do that-to examine the potential
of the resource, evaluate the state of the art of ocean
mining, identify the legal, regulatory, and jurisdiction-
al problems involved, consider the possible environmental
questions, and determine how to meet the needs for trained
engineers to do the job.

The report, based on an 18-month study, is especially
concerned with mining hard minerals in the outer conti-
nental shelf and in the deep ocean plains. It does not
deal with the production of oil and natural gas, the
salt and sulfur from the continental margins, or such
matters as miner safety, metals processing and national
security.

Although it was not mentioned in the report, it was the
consensus of those panel members most concerned with
environmental protection that the development of mining
surveys and ecosystem monitoring begin with a prototype
mining operation.

The panel was deeply saddened during its deliberations
by the death of one of its members, the eminent metal-
lurgist, Antoine Gaudin.

J. Robert Moore, Chairman
Panel on Operational Safety
in marine Mining

SUMMARY

Over the past 25 years, the United States has grown~
increasingly disturbed about its potential vulnerability
to the supply of minerals in the world and the actions of
other nations possessing those resources. in the early
1950's, President Truman, concerned about the acute
shortages experienced during and after World War II and
the Korean War, established the Paley Commission to ex-
plore the problem.' Major studies by the National
Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering,
and others, have called attention to the steadily declin-
ing quantities of certain material resources and the close
relationship between availability, production and appli-
cation as well as such concerns as environmental protec-
tion, foreign supplies, world competition and national
goals.2 in the most recent of those studies, Mineral
Resources and the Environment, a committee of the National
Research Council, the operating agency of the academies,
issued a forceful statement on the problem:

"Copper resources in manganese nodules on the
floors of the deep seas are apparently as large
as developed reserves in conventional deposits
an land. Because there is uncertainty as to the
ability of the United States to meet demands for
copper from domestic sources, we recommend that
developing the recovery of copper and associated
metals from these nodules be encouraged with due
regard to the potential im act of undersea
mining of the environment.
in this report by a panel of the Marine Board, Assembly of
Engineering, of the National Research Council, the state-
of-the-art of mining exploration and mineral recovery on
the outer continental shelf and abyssal oceans plains is
evaluated. Assessments are made about the potential
availability of hard minerals, with estimates of quantity,
feasibility, and value--the criteria that are always
applied in making decisions to go ahead or not. In the
case of copper, cobalt, manganese, and nickel, which are
present in manganese nodules, there are additional factors,
principally their importance to an industrialized society
like that of the 'United States.

Although the emphasis of the study was on technological
factors, the panel examined such important related issues
as regulatory and leasing requirements, environmental
implications, and education and manpower needs. Drilling
for oil and natural gas was not a subject for the panel's
analysis-nor were such matters as mining safety, metals
processing, and national security.

Complex, difficult and costly as it is bound to be,
marine mining offers enormous potential for becoming
independent of foreign countries for some important
minerals, including those used as sources of energy.
The United States is fortunately located near several
prime and secondary sites for these minerals-- princi-
pally on the continental shelf north of Virginia, the
Gulf of Mexico, California and Alaska. Estimates of the
abundance and worth of these resources are contained in
Table 3 (pages 8-11).

TABLE 1. Marine Mining Categories.

Probable Status of
Probable Mining Mining System
Ores Operating Depth' Mining Rate2 Equipment3 Development4
Sand & gravel Shallow High Hopper Complete, U.S./Foreign
Hyd. C-H Complete, Foreign
Mech. Partial, Foreign
Heavy minerals Shallow High Mech. Complete, Foreign
Hyd. C-H Partial, Foreign
Cassiterite Shallow High Hyd. C-H Complete, Foreign
Mech. Partial, Foreign
Diamonds Shallow Low & high Pneumatic Complete, Foreign
Hyd. C-H Complete, Foreign
Gold Shallow High Mech. Complete, Foreign
Hyd. C-H Partial, Foreign
Barite Shallow Low Mech. Complete, U.S.
Phosphates Shallow & Low & high Hyd. C-H Partial, Foreign
intermediate Mech. Partial, U.S./Foreign
Manganese nodules Deep Low Pneumatic Partial, U.S./Foreign
Mech. Partial, U.S.
Hyd. Partial, U.S.
I. Shallow = 150 ft. or less; Intermediate = 150 ft. to 3000 ft.; Deep = deeper than 3000 ft.
2. Low = o00 cubic yards/hour or less; High = more than 500/hour.
3. Hyd. C-H = Hydraulic cutterhead; Mech. = Bucket Lift; Pneumatic = Air Lift System.
4. Sea state compensation development only may be required where indicated "Partial," except for manganese
nodules. U.S. or Foreign refers to location of operations except for manganese nodules where it indicates
technology development.

On the continental shelf, the Panel believes that initial
mining operations in the production of sand and gravel
will continue to be conducted with rather conventional
equipment (Table 1). On a smaller scale, and with similar
conventional equipment, other resources, such as rare
earth sands, barite, coal, tin, and phosphate rock have
already been produced from shelf deposits in various parts
of the world. Such activities are expected to increase as
technological capability and economic rewards increase.
Unlike the area underlying the deep ocean, the question of
ownership of much of the continental margins of the world
is well-defined under existing international law.

In the deep ocean, the situation is much more complex,
although the early production of basic resources seems
much more promising. This is due primarily to the exten-
sive deposits of ferromanganese nodules found throughout
the world ocean seafloor at depths of 3600-5500m (12,000-
18,000 ft). In many deposits these nodules contain high

grade ore-quality manganese, copper, cobalt and nickel.
While the development of the technology for this type of
mining is considered well in hand, the initial capital
investments are very high. Nevertheless, at least four
corporations or consortia are now planning to initiate
deep sea mining operations on commercial scales. A
major inhibiting factor is the disputed international law
of the sea regarding who has the right to mine deep ocean
mineral resources and under what conditions? Whether or
not this question is resolved in each case by the United
Nations, the United States government is expected to
legislate sufficient guarantees to permit initiation of
commercial deep-ocean mining to begin within the next two
to four years. Once this happens, mining other marine
resources from the deep seafloor should expand.

While the Panel recognizes the importance of processing
nodules for the particular metals of value, the details
and methodology of extractive metallurgy are topics
beyond the scope of this report. The state of techno-
logy today indicates that processing will be initially
carried out on land, using technology especially developed
for the nodules. Processing at sea using these techniques
would require platforms with little or no motion and space
often exceeding 20 hectares (50 acres).

With the initiation of marine mining operations, careful
studies and assessments of their environmental impact
Will be required. The mandate to accomplish this on the
continental shelf presently exists throucr the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which established the
basis for a regulatory framework for dll activities that
might have environmental impacts. In the international
region of the deep ocean, the case is not clear. However,
it has been ruled that an environmental impact statement
will be required before any United States involvement can
be legislated, and it is reasonable to assume that the
government will impose environmental guidelines on the
United States firms working in this area. While the
problems of deep-ocean work are being resolved, there is
an opportunity to carry out the environmental assessment
before any commercial activity is undertaken. This was
not the case with mining on the continental shelf, which
in some cases preceded any environmental rules.

The regulation and leasing requirements are simpler on the
continental shelf, because the title to the lands involved
is relatively clear in most places. The regulation and
leasing arrangements will invoke questions of environmen-
tal protection, offshore safety of operations, interfer-
ence with other uses of the continental shelf waters,
concessions to proven exploitation capabilities, and
revenues to state and federal governments. In the deep
ocean these same questions must be addressed, although to
differing degrees. A principal problem is the determina-
tion of the rights of ownership. Past experiences of

vii

United States regulatory and leasing agencies should
serve as a useful guide--both for how and how not-for
establishing incentives for attracting capital invest-
ment to the new venture of ocean mining.

The requirement for trained manpower in the various com-
ponent areas in marine mining, from management to tech-
nology and from marketing to field work, is not now
considered a major limiting factor. However, the lag
between the establishment of curricula and the hiring of
the first graduates makes it prudent to consider now what
might be the future needs of the marine mining industry.
College-level training will be needed at the undergrad-
uate and graduate level in related sciences, engineering,
and management. Technical school curricula will be
required to train shipboard operators and technicians to
handle the mining platform and its equipment. An
important phase of the entire process of education is the
stimulation of public awareness of marine mining. With-
out public knowledge, interest, and support, the initia-
tion of commercial marine mining will be more difficult.

In the opinion of the Panel, adequate educational facili-
ties now exist to support the estimated needs of a marine
mining industry. What is required in these institutions
is some reorganizing of the existing capability to meet
the specific needs of this new field.

SPECIFIC FINDINGS
As a result of its deliberations, the Panel offers the
following conclusions and recommendations:

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Importance and Potential

Conclusi-on. The development Conclusion. Same
of mineral resources has
positive economi-c potential
and it appears that mining
can be conducted with-in
acceptable limits of environ-
mental risk (as weighed
against the expected econo-
mic gain).

Recommendations. The Recommendations. Same
federal government should
take steps to (1 provide
incentives for the deve lop-
ment of mineral resources by
the establishment of appro-
priate regulations and teasing
proceduresS r2) undertake
a continuing assessment of

Viii

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Importance and Potential Ccont'd)

the mineral resources, and
(3) support development of
exploration and interpretive
technology as items of first
priority.

Mining Technology

Conclusions. Although Conclusions. Exploration
economic criteria must be t-echniques used by govern-
considered, the technology mnent, university, and
now exists to support outer industry researchers have
continental shelf mining of thus far been adequate to
unconsolidated hard mineral identify broadly the poten-
deposits by dredging, in tial of ferromanganese
water depths to 92 meters nodules found in the oceans;
(300 ft). These depths can however, present exploration
be doubled with minimal techniques need to be im-
development. Mining of proved to meet the future
consolidated hard-mineral demands of full-scale mining
Ideposits is also feasible operations. Equipment and
in some areas of the outer subsystems appear to be
continental shelf by open- available for deep ocean
pit excavation or by means mining systems, but no total
Iof shafts sunk either on system has yet been proven
land or through artificial reliable to support comnmer-
islands. Further, resources cial operations.
amenable to fluid extraction
may be recovered through Four areas of engineering
drill holes sunk from fixed knowledge pertinent to
or floating platforms in any marine mining require a
area of the outer continental considerable amount of
shelf. improvement. These are:

Outer continental shelf Cl) fatigue life of mate-
mining of certain mineral rials in seawater;
deposits appears economically
viable; however, the cost of (2) fracture mechanics of
leasing and of meeting still materials exposed to
undefined environmental regu- seawater and other
lations could affect this corrosive media at high
conclusion. stress levels;

Outer continental shelf mining (3) the effect of residual
differs significantly from stresses due to weld-
terrestrial mining, deep-ocean ing; and
mining, and offshore petroleum
operations. (4) engineering properties
of marine sediments.
Recommendations. Given the Recommendations.With regard
above, the Panel recommends to materials and structures

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Mining Technology (cont'd)

that (1) the Department of for marine mining applica-
the Interior recognize the tions, the Panel recommends
significant differences be- that the federal government
tween outer continental and industry perform a com-
shelf mining and deep-ocean prehensive materials test-
mining, offshore petroleum ing program in order to
operations and land mining evaluate selected materials
before establishing final and characteristics of those
outer continental shelf hard materials, complete the
mineral regulations; (2) one program by 1978, and publish
or more heavily monitored, a report for public use.
commercial scale, prototype Independent laboratories are
operation(s) should be recommended as the test
sponsored by the federal agencies. The testing pro-
government for the dual pur- gram should consider:
poses of generating design
criteria for the fabrication 1. Materials: steels, ti-
of environmentally sound tanium, aluminum;
mining systems and devising
environmentally sound leasing 2. Form of Test Specimens:
regulations and operating weldments, forgings,
procedures; (3) private enter- sheet, and plate;
prise be assured of lease
terms of sufficient duration Evaluation Parameters:
and area to allow for amorti- ea n sree
zation of the major investment stress ratio, S curve
stress ratio, S/N curve*
required for mining equipment; in air and water, and
and (4) government-sponsored s tress co ncentration
research and development of trs
value to ocean engineering be a rs.
continued in relevant areas
of the marine environment, on with regard to component
navigation techniques, on reliability, the Panel
structural materials in sea- recommends that (1) a joint
water, on effects of weather, government and industry pro-
and on marine geology and gram be organized to form
soil mechanics. standards similar to the
approach of Det norske
Veritas. Components that
are common to several
engineering problems such
as pressure compensation
should be standardized.
Others that are custom-
designed should follow
standardized development
guidelines, and acceptance
testing criteria. The
Panel further recommends
that (2) guidelines be

* S/N = Stress Level/Number of Cycles

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Mining Technology (cont'd)

established, based on the
comprehensive materials
testing program, for
determining structural
design criteria of deep-
ocean systems; and that

(3) the United States
Government take the lead by
supporting industry in the
development of sensors and
survey systems unique to
ocean mining, such as in-
situ mineral content
anaTyses of ferromanganese
nodules and microbathy-
metry survey systems. Basic
research in this field, when
conducted by or for the
government, should be made
public.

For the collection of
environmental data, the
Panel recommends that (4)
the United States govern-
ment, to help meet the
needs of operational safety
in marine mining, produce a
sea-state prediction model,
augmented by suitable buoys
and sensors, for areas of
ocean mining interest (0 -
20� north latitude, 120� -
l80� west longitude). The
Panel further recommends
that (5) a national clear-
inghouse for collection of
soil mechanics data be
established and that
industry cooperate in the
formation of maps containing
geological and geophysical
data. These data should be
collected and submitted
for expert analysis to
determine if additional
work is required. Upon
completion of analysis, the
data should be published
by the United States
government.

Environmental Protection and Safety

Conclusions. There will be Conclusions. Same
environmental impacts assoc-
iated with the onshore acti-
vities that accompany offshore
mining. Some will be
associated with the transport
of the minerals (marine
terminals and support facili-
ties, stockpiling of materials,
truck movements, etc.) and
others will be associated with
the processing of the minerals.
Assessment of the environmen-
tal impacts of these activities
should proceed before there is
a move to license full-scale
offshore mining. To assure
development of environmentally
safe ocean mining, industry
must be willing to disclose
data on the technology of
mining pertaining to those
elements of mining systems
that directly interact with
the environment. ideally,
such requirements would be
satisfied by providing, with-
out restriction, the func-
tional information and
specifications, rather than
the detailed design or process
data. However, recipient
groups must be willing to
receive and maintain any pro-
prietary information under the
terms of protective confiden-
tial disclosure arrangements
that prevent public access to
the data. It must be
recognized that breach of
such agreements and the resul-
tant compromise of proprietary
information could result in
serious retardation of the
efforts to make the benefits
of ocean resources available
for world use. With the
exception of those proprietary
data disclosed in confidence,
the output from this coopera-
tive endeavor of government,
academia, industry and other
interested groups related to
the environmental impact ofxi

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Environmental Protection and Safety (cont'd)

ocean mining should be subject
to public scrutiny.
it is essential for the pro- Although our knowledge of
tection of the environment to the impact of manganese
develop orderly procedures nodule mining on the
for mining on the outer conti- oceanic environment is
nental shelf. In light of its developing and the environ-
present stage of development, mental effects of two
the outer continental shelf mining tests have already
mining industry has an been monitored,' 6 it re-
opportunity to design hard- mains difficult to fore-
ware and operating methods cast precisely what the
that will minimize potential environmental effects of
adverse environmental con- full-scale mining opera-
sequences. tions will be.

The extent of environmental A unique opportunity pre-
information presently sently exists to further the
available on the outer con- close collaboration between
tinental shelf varies, with the government, the marine
Gulf of Mexico relatively interested groups through
well studied and others, say, joint programs to develop
off Alaska, relatively un- plans for environmentally-
known. Until such knowledge safe deep ocean mining
and understanding is obtain- before commercial operations
ed, extrapolation of the start.
available data and informa-
tion from one area to ano-
ther will be difficult.

Standard criteria do not ex-
ist for gathering and evalu-
ating data describing the
environment for a given
outer continental shelf area
and for a given scope of
activity. Proposed standards
are currently being developed
It ~by a number of agencies.
The environmental impact of
specific mining operations,
I' ~as well, is only partially
understood because to date
there has been little ex-
perience in mining of the
outer continental shelf.

Environmental safeguards for
outer continental shelf min-
ing could be maintained if
(1) adequate prelease base-

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Environmental Protection and Safety (cont'd)

line studies are performed;
(2) provisions for environ-
mental monitoring are
stipulated; and (3) provi-
sions for evaluation and
corrective action are man-
dated in the regulatory sys-
tem. Foreign continental
shelf mining experience can
be of value in predicting
certain environmental pro-
blems to be expected on the
outer continental shelf.

Recommendations. The Panel Recommendations. The Panel
recommends that (2) coopera- recommends that appropriate
tive industrial and govern- agencies of the United States
mental research to identify government be responsible for
the existing environmental (1) determining baseline en-
conditions in potential outer vironmental conditions in the
continental shelf mining areas potential mining areas (to be
be intensified, and further, continued and completed, if
that research be conducted to necessary, during the subse-
identify the environmental quent phases of the proce-
effects, both short- and dure); (2) environmental
long-term, of outer conti- monitoring of pilot and/or
nental shelf mining; (2) full scale mining operations;
prototype operations be un- (3) documentation of changes
dertaken in representative induced in benthic and pela-
areas (environmental effects gic ecosystems by deep-ocean
of these prototype opera- mining and evaluation of
tions should be monitored so their implications in rela-
that the long-term impacts tion to current and potential
can be weighed against the marine resources; and (4)
short-term changes before if necessary, recommendation
full-scale leasing is of changes in mining methods
begun); (3) environmental and equipment based on the
standards be formulated facts established in 2 and 3
using the knowledge gained above.
during monitoring of pro-
totype operations; (4) Based on the findings
industry be informed of described in 1 above, the
pertinent environmental re- United States Government
quirements in a timely should (1) prepare an
manner through the formula- adequate programmatic
tion of sound regulations environmental impact state-
and environmental criteria; ment for manganese nodule
(5) an independent panel of mining; (2) formulate en-
experts be established to vironmental criteria and
provide for adequate review regulations for the mining
of proposed scopes of work, operations to minimize
and for evaluation of possible harmful environ-

xiv

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Environmental Protection and Safety (cont'd)

results of baseline and mental effects while en-
monitoring studies, and (6) hancing the development of
relevant foreign continental potentially beneficial
shelf mining operations be effects; (3) evaluate the
evaluated with respect to environmental impact re-
their impacts on the environ- ports submitted by the
ment. mining companies in support
of their applications for
lease and production
licenses, where required;
(4) prepare the specific
environmental impact state-
ment for each lease and
production license, where
required; and (5) monitor
and enforce the environ-
mental regulations until an
international agreement
can be reached.

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Regulations and Leasing

Conclusions. There is at Conclusions. Same.
present a very limited
experience base upon which
to build a licensing and
regulatory system for hard-
minerals mining in the
oceans; there is a need for
a regulatory licensing
system that is flexible and
can be continually upgraded
as a result of lessons
learned from early mining
activities; and that the
Outer Continental Shelf
Lands Act has major deficien-
cies as a legislative basis
for leasing and regulation
of hard-minerals mining.

Recommendations. Generally, Recommendations. The Panel
the Panel recommends an recommends that (1) prospec-
approach to government ting, using such methods as
regulation and management of magnetic, gravimetrio, and
outer continental shelf seismic surveys, as well as
mining that replaces early bottom sampling and shallow
financial advantage and coring, may be undertaken by
administratively clean any United States citizen or

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Regulations and Leasing (cont'd)

allocation of mining leases company without prior govern-
by sealed bids, based on ment approval or permit
bonuses, with the early and required; (2) the Department
complete information advan- of the Interior prepare a
tages of a licensing system regional programmatic impact
which uses work program statement in advance of any
proposals as a basis for mineral licensing in an area;
allocation. (3) it be government policy
to license operations for
Specifically, the Panel mineral exploration and
recommends that (1) prospec- exploitation in the deep
ting be available to any ocean; (4) marine mining
United States citizen or licenses not be allocated
company upon issuance of a on the basis of either
permit by the Department of bonus bids or royalty bids,
the Interior; (2) the Depart- but rather, royalty rates be
ment of the Interior work established by the federal
toward early issuance of 10- government based on the
year licensing schedules; costs and benefits to the
(3) the Department of the licensee; (5) based on the
Interior, in conjunction with programmatic impact state-
appropriate states, prepare ment, the Department of
a regional programmatic the Interior, within a set
impact statement when any time frame, prepare a
coastal region is included license impact statement
on the ZO-year licensing in advance of conversion
schedule; (4) an ad hoc to a production license;
committee be constituted by (6) conversion of the
the Council on Environmental license from exploration to
Quality to review regional production be at the option
programmatic impact state- of the licensee; (7) upon
ments; (5) in the absence conversion of the license
of competing requests or if to the production phase,
the character of the marine that government have access
mineral deposits is not to all raw resource data
known and upon submission of and interpretive results;
an acceptable detailed ex- (8) to assist in setting
ploration program the govern- royalty rates for new or
ment issue an exploration renewed licenses, the
license; (6) where competi- Department of the Interior,
tion exists for detailed at fixed intervals,
exploration licenses, and establish ad hoc commissions
where the Department of the to assess the adequacy of
Interior judges competing the royalties being charged
exploration plans to be mining companies; (9) at
technically sound, environ- the time production opera-
mentally acceptable and the tions begin, substantial
explorers capable of carry- percentages of the resource
ing them out, exploration covered on the initial license
licenses be given to (a) all be relinquished, in order to
parties, or (b) a coopera- encourage extensive and early
tive exploration program be exploration and to provide
established by the Depart- maximum information; (10)

xvi

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Regulations and Leasing (cont'd)

ment of the Interior; (7) except where prohibited by
based on the programmatic existing legislation, respon-
statement for the region, sibility for the resource
the Department of the management and regulation of
Interior prepare a license offshore mining be concentra-
impact statement to be avail- ted in the Department of the
able at least three months Interior; (ll) the United
prior to a public hearing on States government support the
the proposed exploration establishment of an indepen-
program; (8) production dent standard-setting organi-
licenses be given on the zation, using Det norske
basis of work programs sub- Veritas as a model, with this
mitted by the companies with organization in turn provid-
exploration licenses; (9) at ing the technological backup
fixed time intervals, sub- for United States regulation
stantial percentages of the of marine mining; and (12)
land covered in the initial all safety and environmental
exploration license revert protection technology used
to the federal government; in marine mining operations
(Z0) after issuing a produc- meet the best available
tion license, government and commercial standard.
the public have access to
all raw technical data and
interpretive results held by
the licensee; (ID) licenses
not be allocated on the basis
of bonus bids. Rather,
royalty rates should be
established by the federal
government based on the costs
and benefits to the licensee;
in setting royalty rates for
new or renewed licenses, the
Department of the Interior
should, at fixed intervals,
establish ad hoc commissions
to assess the adequacy of
royalties being charged mining
companies; (12) the licensee
should be liable for the
consequences of his activities
(see page 81); (13) except
where prohibited by existing
legislation, responsibility
for resource management and
regulation of offshore mining
be concentrated in the
Department of the Interior;7
(Z4) the United States
government support the estab-
lishment of an independent
standard-setting organization,
using Det norske Veritas as a

xvii

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Regulations and Leasing (contldl

model; and (15) all safety
and environmental protection
technology used in marine
mining operations meet the
best available commercial
standard.

Education

Conclusion. Sufficiently Conclusion. Same.
varied curricula at the
university level are avail-
able for education in the
supporting basics of marine
mining, but that specializa-
tion is only obtained by
student participation in
marine minerals exploration
or mining research projects.
Basic technician training is
widely available in two-year
programs, but must be aug-
mented by on-the-job exper-
ience at sea. Formal degree
programs in ocean mining,
per se, do not appear to be
Tu-stT-fied at this time,
based on current activity.

Recommendations. The Panel Recommendations. Same.
recommends that (1) govern-
ment agencies responsible for
management of marine mineral
resources utilize existing
non-government training
facilities in meeting their
needs for professional and
technician-level personnel;
(2) government-sponsored
academic research and train-
ing in selected aspects of
seafloor minerals exploration,
marine mining and environ-
mental considerations be
continued and strengthened in
cooperation with the academic
and industrial sectors; and
(3) an appropriate government
agency initiate a study on
existing and projected
personnel requirements of

xviii

Outer Continental Shelf Deep Ocean

Education (cont'd)

the marine mining industry,
including those associated
needs of agencies and academia,
to provide long-range educa-
tional guidance.

U.S. President's Materials Policy Commission.
1952. Resources for Freedom: A Report to the
President, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office.

2 National Commission on Materials Policy. 1973.
Material Needs and the Environment Today and
Tomorrow. Final Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office; Committee on the
Survey of Materials Science and Engineering.
1974. Materials and Man's Needs, Washington,
D.C.: National Academy of Sciences; Proceedings
of a Joint Meeting of the National Academy of
Sciences-National Academy of Engineering. 1975.
National Materials Policy, Washington, D.C.:
National Academy of Sciences.

Committee on Mineral Resources and the Environ-
ment, National Research Council. 1975. Mineral
Resources and the Environment, Washington, D.C.:
National Academy of Sciences.

Det norske Veritas (Norway): is a major inter-
national ship classification society. It is
independent and non profit.

Amos, A.F., et al. 1972. Effects of Surface-
Discharged Deep Sea Mining Effluent. Mar.
Tech. Soc. Jour. 6 (4), pp. 40-46.

Roels, O.A., et al. 1973. Environmental Impact
of Deep-Sea Mininq, NOAA Technical Report ERL 290
ODll, Boulder: Department of Commerce.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Interior and
Insular Affairs. 1975. Recent Developments in Deep
Seabed Mining, 94th Cong., 1st session. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

xix

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

PREFACE iii

SUMMARY V
SPECIFIC FINDINGS viii

CHAPTER ONE: STUDY BACKGROUND 3

CHAPTER TWO: MARINE MINERALS AND MINING:
IMPORTANCE AND POTENTIAL
EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL 12

PROBABLE AREAS OF EARLY OUTER CONTINENTAL is
SHELF MINING

CHAPTER THREE: OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF MINING 21

TECHNOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 22

Sand and Gravel 24
Shell 33
Phosphorite 35
Heavy Minerals 39
Underground Mining 40
Solution mining 43
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SAFETY 45

State of Information 46
Planning Baseline and Monitoring 49
Criteria
Environmental Impact of Technology 50

REGULATIONS AND LEASING 51

Objectives and Content 54
Relevance of Oil and Gas Experience 55
General Findings 56
Regulatory Principles Covering Hard 59
Minerals Mining on the Outer Con-
tinental Shelf

CHAPTER FOUR: DEEP-OCEAN MINING 69

CHARACTERISTICS 69
xxi

PAGE

TECHNOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 69

Exploration 70
Physical Description of Nodules 74
Mining Operations 75
Mining Equipment and Seabed Interf ace 76
During and After Ore Removal
Additional Systematic Factors of Environ- 88
mental Interest

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SAFETY 88

Environmental Impacts of Deep-Ocean 90
Mining
Effects of Mining on the Seafloor and 90
Near-Bottom Water Mass
Effects of Mining on the Water Column 92

REGULATIONS AND LEASING 92

Introduction 92
Regulatory Principles Covering Hard 94
Minerals Mining in the Deep Ocean

CHAPTER FIVE: EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS: 98
MANPOWER FOR OCEAN MINING

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE 98

PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING 9 9

GOVERNMENT AGENCY AND LEGISLATIVE 99
EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION 99
TECHNICAL SUPPORT PERSONNEL EDUCATION 102

SUMMARY 102

APPENDIX A: THE PANEL ON OPERATIONAL SAFETY 103
IN MARINE MINING

APPENDIX B: MARINE MINING WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS 105

APPENDIX C: OTHER CONTRIBUTORS To THIS STUDY 107

APPENDIX D: MEMBERSHIP OF THE MARINE BOARD 108

APPENDIX E: A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY i l l

APPENDIX F: FOREIGN CONTINENTAL SHELF 1 17
DEVELOPMENTS
xxii

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

PAGE

TABLE 1: Marine Mining Categories vi

TABLE 2: Imports Supplied Significant 6
Percentages of Total U.S. Demand
in 1973

TABLE 3: Total Apparent World Resources of 8
Marine Minerals for Dissolved, Un-
consolidated, and Consolidated
Deposits, Compared with Estimated
Terrestrial Resources, Demands and
Adequacy of Supply for the U.S. and
the World

TABLE 4: Classification of Marine Mineral 13
Resources

TABLE 5: Mining Techniques versus Outer 23
Continental Shelf Deposit Types
TABLE 6: North East Pacific Ocean Ferro- 74
manganese Nodule Characteristics

TABLE 7: Typical Mining Subsystem 78

TABLE 8: Components for Deepsea Mining 81

FIGURE 1: Promising Geographic Locations for 25
OCS Hard Mineral Mining

FIGURE 2: Distribution of Sediments on the 26
Continental Shelf, North Carolina
to Maine

FIGURE 3: Distribution of Sediments, Florida 27
Atlantic Continental Shelf

FIGURE 4: Trailer Dredging 30

FIGURE 5: Illustration of Minable Volume 31

FIGURE 6: Illustration of Deposit Site to 31
Shore; Deposit Site to Processing
Plant
xxiii

PAGE

FIGURE 7: Flow Sheet of Shoreside 32
Processing

FIGURE 8: Illustration of Transport of 35
Mined Shells and Waste Fines

FIGURE 9: Phosphorite Areas of Mining 36
Interest

FIGURE 10: The Deep-Sea Drag Dredge 38

FIGURE 11: Illustration of Transport of 39
Mined Phosphorite

FIGURE 12: Sketch of Start-Up in New Area 41

FIGURE 13: Section and Plan Sketches of 42
Coal Mining Operation

FIGURE 14: Section and Plan Sketches of 44
In-Situ Methods of Mining

FIGURE 15: Deep-Ocean Mining System 71
Schematic

FIGURE 16: Deep-Ocean Mining Approach and 72
Options

FIGURE 17: Deep-Ocean Mining - Time Phasing 73

FIGURE 18: Principal of Continuous Bucket- 77
Line Dredging System

xxiv

MINING
IN THE
OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF
AND IN
THE
DEEP OCEAN

CHAPTER ONE

STUDY BACKGROUND

In August 1973, following a formal request by the
Assistant Secretary for Mineral Resources of the
Department of the Interior on 15 February 1973, the
Marine Board of the National Academy of Engineering
established a Panel on Operational Safety in Marine
Mining for the purpose of assisting the Department
of the interior in formulating its policies concern-
ing marine mining operations and management. The
terms of reference developed by the Panel were as
follows:

1. To identify the state of the art in marine
mining exploration and recovery (including an
assessment of technological capabilities, environ-
mental considerations, and regulatory aspects of
mining operations;

2. To examine the role of the U.S. government with
regard to the development of the hard minerals of
the outer continental shelf (OCS), with particular
attention to the protection of the environment;

3. To identify engineering investigations needed to
support the role of the government; and

4. To provide for wise use of the resources while
minimizing the impact on the environment.

in examining these matters, the Panel found that
limiting its view to operational safety--without
consideration or assessment of other aspects of
marine mining--would result in an imbalanced and
incomplete study. By mutual agreement with the
Department of the Interior, therefore, the Panel
expanded the study to embrace the following:

1. Importance and Potential of Hard Minerals from
the Seafloor:

An assessment of resource availability and
economic value of seafloor deposits; and a
comparison of these resources with the availa-
bility and costs of terrestrial sources.

2. Outer Continental Shelf Mining:

An assessment of geographical characteristics of
the outer continental shelf and of industry's
3

technological capabilities to work there; environ-
mental considerations and regulatory and leasing
requirements of outer continental shelf mining.

3. Deep-Ocean Mining:

An assessment of geographical characteristics of
the deep-ocean and of the technological capa-
bilities of the industry to operate in it; the
environmental implications of deep-ocean mining,
as well as regulatory and leasing requirements
that should apply.

4. Education and Manpower:

A consideration of the educational issues germaine
to both deep-ocean and outer continental shelf
mining (to include technical training and stimu-
lati~on of public awareness).

During the initial phase of the 18-month study, the Panel
considered these issues. Comprehensive assessments were
prepared by individual Panel members for careful review
and analysis by the full Panel. Following extensive
deliberations, a draft report was prepared.

In order to obtain additional viewpoints as to the
validity of the problem areas, weaknesses and defi-
ciencies in the assessments, and alternative options
for dealing with the problems, the Panel convened a
workshop, at which experts from government, industry,
and academia participated. Subsequent to the workshop,
the Panel integrated its findings into this final report.

CHAPTER TWO

MARINE MIINERALS AND MNINNG, IMPORTANCE
AND POTENTIAL

The importance of marine minerals to the economies of
the United States and the rest of the world has increased
dramatically since the oil embargo of 1973. The lessons
in economics and politics administered by some of the oil
producing nations have already resulted in price rises of
another commodity in the world market--bauxite, the min-
eral used in making aluminum. Although the United States
is more autonomous in nonfuel minerals than any country
except the USSR and perhaps Canada, the present depen-
dency on foreign sources, as shown in Table 2, is esti-
mated to rise from $6 billion in 1971 to more than $50
billion by the year 2000.8

Recent computer models developed by Forrester9 and
Meadows, et al,'0 analyzing the impact of contemporary
growth pa~tterns on the world environment, use five
factors basic to the human ecosystem: population, food
production, industrialization, consumption of nonrenew-
able resources, and environmental pollution. With each
increasing and interacting at a rapid rate, the models
produced some interesting predictions. Increases in
population require increases in food production, which
requires increases in industrialization, leading to
increased consumption of nonrenewable resources and
increased pollution. Ignoring the other factors and
allowing for a generous 250-year supply of natural
resources, Forrester predicted that, well before the
resources were exhausted, shortages would depress the
world ecosystem and dynamic consequences would be felt
in only 30-50 years, not 250 years in the future. With-
out necessarily endorsing, en toto, the specific results
of these studies, the generail c~onclusions of increasing
shortages of various resources is concurred with. The
major problem with the Forrester model, say many critics,
is that it does not take proper account of technological
innovation, engineering adaptations, substitute mate-
rials; etc.

if there is in fact a potential shortage of the mineral
commodities required to meet future demands, what alter-
natives are open to the United States with regard to
these deficits? There are several options, including
reducing the rate of consumption through recycling or
lowering the nation's growth patterns and living stan-
dards, finding alternate materials, and developing alter-
5

TABLE 2

IMPORTS SUPPLIED SIGNIFICANT PERCENTAGES

OF TOTAL U.S. DEMAND IN 1973

MAJOR

MINERAL FOREIGN SOURCES
PERCENTAGE IMPORTED

100% 75% 50% 25% 0%

PLATINUM GROUP METAILS UK. USP.SOUTAAFRICA
MICA Ihts mtlD-. BRAZIL.ALAGASY
CHROMIUM USSA. SOUT. AFRICA. TURKEY.PIIILL
STRONTIUM MEDICO. U.. SPAIN
COBALT ZAIRE. BELGIUM. LQ.ENIROIRG.FINLANO.CANACA.N0MWV
TANTALUM W.GER.A. CANADA. BRAZIL.ZAFIRE
COLUM81UM BRAIL, CANADA. N.GEla
MANGANESE RlAZIL.GASDM.SOUT. AFRICA.ZMRE
ASBESTOS CAN&DA.NOIITHAFRICA
ALUMINUM b-&-wiR AAC.UIA AAAAITAA
TITANIUM *,PaiI. AUSTRALIA
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A.NSATIIALND.CI
MERCURY CANADA. MDXICO SPAIN. ITALY
BISMUTH C A"AD.,MEXICO. JPANX.PERU.I4 CR
FLUORINE MEXICO. SPAIII. ITALY, SOUTH AFRICA
NICKEL CANADINO4RWAY
POTASSIUM CMG
SILVER CANADA. PER U. MEXICO. ODIAAWRU
TUNGSTEN CAA.kPEAL,
ZINC CANADA., MEDICO. PERU. AUSTRALIA
GOLD CANADPA. SRTZE."N.LaND.ARUS. RMA
ANTIMONY SOUTN AFR ICA. MEXI'CO. UK. ROLIVIA. P. R. COMPA
BARIUM Im PERUl. IRE LAND. MEXICO. CANADA, MUCEC
RHENIUM f WST GER.ANY. SWEDEN
SELENIUM CANADA, JAPAN. MEXIICO. LIC
GYPSUM CAAA.E7C.SNAC

PETROLEUM i-w..cwt.. j IX C ENTRAL A SOUTII AMERICA. CADIADA.MIDDLE U"S
IRON CANADA. YE NEZUE LA. JAPAN, ECOMMON MARE!? tarC
'TITANIUM i.II.51 CANADA. AUSTRALIA
CADMIUM MEXICO. AUSTRALI'A. CAIXADA. PERUI. IMAM
VANADIUM SOUT- AlRIC., C.. LE.NETI4.ANTILMUME.S
TELLURIUM IPERU.CANADA
LEAD ICANADA. AUSTRALIA. PERIF.NMEXICO
RARE EARTHS IAUSTRALIA. I, YI.NA
MAGNESIUM 1.ES. GREECE.MIELAND.AUJSTRIA.
PUMICE RmEmECETALYI
GALT CANADA. MEXICO. BAHAMAS
CEMENT CANADA. DA-IM.S. NORWAY. U1
NATURAL GAS - CANADA
COPPER - CANADA.K.UR.C.LE
STONE I ITALT. CANADA. Mt XCO. PORTIGJAL

100% 75% 50% 25% 0%

NET IMPORTS

(source: U.S. Bureau of Mines)

nate sources of minerals supply. These alternatives are
not mutually exclusive, nor do they fall within the scope
of this study, which examines only the specific case of
marine minerals. That there is the potential for shortage
is illustrated by Table 3.11 This table presents the
existing annual 'United States and world demand for 88
major mineral commodities, excluding oil and gas. To make
comparison simpler, all numbers are reduced to order of
Magnitude dollars ($Om), where $OM8.862 represents $0.862
x 108.12 The demands are extrapolated to give compara-
tive estimated demands to the year 2000. These are then
compared with the estimated total land resources of the
commodities now in use by the United States and the world.

By the year 2000, the following commodity deficiencies are
indicated for the United States:

aluminum lead
antimony magnesium
asbestos mercury
barium mica
bismuth nickel
cadmium niobium (columbium)
cesium platinum
chromium quartz crystal
cobalt sand and gravel
copper silver
diamond sulfur
fluorine tantalum
germanium tin
gold tungsten
graphite uranium
indium

World commodity deficiencies by the year 2000 are
reckoned to include:

aluminum indium
abestos lead
barium mercury
bismuth sand and gravel
cadmium sulfur
copper tin
diamond tungsten
fluorine uranium
germanium zinc
gold

United States shortages of certain commodities are expec-
ted by the year 2000, not by the cutoff of foreign
supplies, but rather by economic inaccessibility due to
rising prices. The possibility of very large price
increases arbitrarily imposed through the political ac-
tions of resource-rich countries can only be reduced if
alternatives are available to the user. it is also
important to consider the possibility that development of
alternate sources might seriously damage the economy of a

TABLE 3. Total apparent world resources of marine minerals
for dissolved, unconsolidated, and consolidated deposits,
compared with estimated terrestrial resources, demands and
adequacy of supply for U.S. and the world. (M. Cruickshank,
Technological and Environmental Considerations in the Ex-
ploration and Exploitation of Marine Minerals)

Cumulative Demand Apparent Resources Adequacy
Present Demand to 2000 AD (Land) (Land) Apparent Resources (Marine)
Energy Resources Symbol U.S. World U.S. World U.S. World U.S. World Diss. Unc. Con.
Anthracite C 8.862 10.173 10.208 11.549 11.580 13.297 + + NA 13.11
Bituminous coal and lignite C 10.233 11.103 12.195 12.556 13.182 14.234 + + NA 13.87
Geothermalt - ND ND ND ND 14.196 14.305 + + ND 14.11
Carbon C 9.550 10.378 11.286 12.161 - - + + 13.363 NA
Helium He 8.253 8.268 10.267 10.311 11.281 11.281 + + ND ND
Hydrogen H 9.515 10.186 12.148 12.319 - - + + ND ND
Peat C 8.106 10.258 9.584 12.114 12.161 13.336 + + NA NA
Shale oil HC - 8.900 11.600 11.822 13.909 15.951 + + NA 15.36
Thorium Th 7.150 7.27 9.256 9.859 10.818 11.239 + + 11.209 11.18 11.11
Uranium U 8.509 8.924 11.450 11.833 11.309 11.384 12.578 14.28 11.16
Deuterium - (20.246) ND

11.067 11.347 12.86 13.223 14.223 15.931 13.423 11.16 15.38
I. Theobold et41al., 1972.

Note: High numbers (over 1014) which would mask the general trends have been excluded from these totals.
Abbreviations: INC Included in total.
NVA Present but no value assigned.
NA Not applicable.
ND No data.
NK Not known.

TABLE 3 (Continued)

Cumulative Demand Apparent Resources Adequacy
Present Demand to 2000 AD (Land) (Land) Apparent Resources (Marine)
Ferrous Minerals Symbol U.S. World U.S. World U.S. World U.S. World Diss.
Unc. Con.
Chromium Cr 8.241 9.105 10.147 10.639 9.106 11.412 + 10.429
14.14 10.44
Cobalt Co 8.262 8.817 10.124 10.369 9.603 10.890 - + 11.227 14.22
11.35
Columbium - 7.590 8.119 9.483 10.110 9.435 11.276 - + ND 12.26 11.90
Iron Fe 11.129 11.659 11.669 12.342 12.277 13.174 + + 10.236 NVA
12.32
Manganese Mn 8.637 9.457 10.288 11.250 10.376 12.104 + + 10.169
14.00 11.23
Molybdenum Mo 8.904 9.224 10.596 11.159 11.102 11.175 + + 12.497
14.86 10.13
Nickel Ni 9.300 9.878 11.210 11.618 10.978 12.138 - + 11.576 14.71 11.62
R.henium Re 6.400 7.100 8.367 8.840 9.232 12.609 + + ND
9.48
Silicon Si 9.148 9.488 10.839 11.322 12.144 13.144 + + 18.132 NVA
14.33
Tantalum Ta 8.114 8.197 8.935 10.175 8.704 10.678 + ND
11.18
Tungsten W 8.427 9.197 10.450 11.141 10.165 10.879 - ND
12.71 10.22
Vanadium V 8.196 8.578 10.229 10.537 11.123 11.425 + + 11.156 15.87
12.15

10.203 10.911 12.116 12.510 12.460 12.511 14.138 16.16 14.34

TABLE 3 (Continued)

Cumulative Demand Apparent Resources Adequacy
Present Demand to 2000 AD (Land) (Land) Apparent Resources (Marine)

Nonferrous Minerals Symbol U.S. World- U.S. World U.S. World U.S. World Diss. Unc. Con.
Aluminum Al 10.198 10.525 12.295 12.832 10.678 11.678 - - 13.390 11.77
Antimony Sb 8.193 8.632 10.122 10.339 9.266 10.393 - + 11.280 8.76
Arsenic As 7.380 7.840 9.182 9.412 9.304 9.672 + + 11.490 9.13
Beryllium Be 8.407 8.593 10.307 10.492 11.134 12.190 + + ND NVA 12.10
Bismuth Bi 7.920 8.304 9.495 10.158 9.154 9.870 - - 11.245 12.45 9.66
Cadmium Cd 8.353 8.830 10.316 10.832 9.554 10.381 - - 10.806 NVA 9.40
Cesium Cs - 6.400 6.700 0 9.132 - + 10.919 11.23
Copper Cu 10.130 10.774 12.168 12.697 11.684 12.287 - 11.129 13.62 11.16
Gallium Ga 6.400 7.110 8.236 8.705 10.324 11.300 + + 13.834 NVA 13.67
Germanium Ge 7.200 7.920 9.131 9.630 8.123 9.240 - - ND NVA 12.13
Gold Au 9.259 10.116 11.214 11.773 11.117 11.470 - - 12.246 13.91 10.20
Hafnium Hf 7.310 7.740 9.204 9.493 11.213 11.527 + + ND 12.35
Indium In 7.150 7.530 8.739 9.273 8.318 9.196 - - ND 10.32
Lead Pb 9.243 9.931 11.133 11.445 10.837 11.278 - - 11.413 12.47 10.17
Magnesium Mg 9.144 9.511 11.346 11.589 11.106 13.182 - + 17.141 NVA 13.61
Mercury Hg 8.332 9.138 10.362 11.153 9.500 10.803 - - 10.634 10.29
Platinum-group metals - 9.202 9.643 11.141 11.496 9.583 11.824 - + ND 10.17 10.96
Radium Ra - -- 10.117 11.117 + + ND 11.13
Rame-earth elements - 8.204 8.354 10.150 10.308 11.171 11.306 + + 11.138 13.19 12.25
Rubidium Rb - - 6.100 6.200 6.900 8.288 + + 13.166 6.37
Scandium SC - - 7.230 7.260 9.351 10.351 + + ND NVA 13.81
Selenium Se 7.550 8.134 9.245 9.659 9.255 9.964 + + 12.628 9.38
Silver Ag 9.193 9.728 11.132 11.496 11.105 11.231 + 12.287 9.24 10.26
Tellurium Te 7.130 7.238 8.594 9.119 9.205 9.739 + ND 13.34 7.89
Thallium TI - 6.100 7.190 7.84 7.199 8.110 + + ND 11.62
Tin Sn 9.196 9.819 11.322 11.653 9.153 11.303 - - 11.136 12.69 9.96
Titanium Ti 9.414 10.127 11.385 12.115 11.667 12.388 + + 10.404 12.74 13.26
Yttrium Y 7.340 7.450 9.291 9.407 10.146 11.120 + + 12.514 12.20 13.19
Zinc Zn 9.380 10.146 10.241 12.109 10.810 11.335 + - 11.413 14.91 10.72
Zirconium Zr 8.342 8. 9.447 10.604 11.375 12.104 + + ND 11.19 -

10.553 11.210 12.680 13.214 12.290 13.326 14.159 14.21 14.18

TABLE 3 (Continued)

Cumulative Demand Apparent Resources Adequacy
Present Demand to 2000 AD (Land) (Land) Apparent Resources (Marine)
Metallic Minerals Symbol U.S. World U.S. World U.S. World U.S. World Diss. Unc. Con.
Argon Ar 8.269 8.681 10.206 10.495 <00 <00 + + ND NA
Asbestos 8.704 9.302 10.374 11.200 9.172 9.862 - - 0 9.32
Barium Ba 8.204 8.574 10.102 10.398 9.887 10.222 - - 11.121 11.10 10.43
Boron B 8.411 9.113 10.292 10.866 11.170 11.340 + + 14.333 12.26 9.58
Bromine Br 8.845 9.113 10.476 10.713 <00 <00 + + 15.576 9.70
Calcium Ca 9.364 10.111 11.238 11.749 <00 <00 + + 15.235 15.42 11.58
Chlorine CI 9.607 10.136 11.483 12.116 12.360 <00 + + 17.209 10.59
Clays - 9.240 10.151 11.195 12.103 11.848 12.410 + + ND
Corundum and emery - 6.400 7.9 8.294 9.150 8.720 10.100 + + 0
Diamond - 8.444 9.398 10.442 11.373 0 10.428 - - 0 ND
Diatomite - 8.275 9.103 10.207 11.102 11.348 12.116 + + ND 13.64
Feldspar - 7.820 8.263 9.627 10.202 10.620 11.124 + + ND 10.46
Fluorine - 8.646 9.180 10.527 11.166 9.540 10.388 - - 12.199 11.33
Garnet - 7.200 7.250 9.183 9.235 9.735 10.368 + + 0 10.76
Gem stones 9.510 10.114 ND 11.342 ND ND + + 0
Graphite (natural) - 7.300 8.265 9.173 10.196 8.500 10.520 - + 0 10.19
Gypsum - 8.574 9.204 10.330 11.118 11.734 12.367 + + 0 12.14
Iodine 1 7.530 8.149 9.402 10.113 11.189 11.945 + + 11.181 9.30
Kyanite and related minerals - 7.940 8.260 9.858 10.239 10.250 10.886 + + 0 12.12 10.33
Lithium Li 7.490 7.820 9.391 9.637 10.767 11.111 + + 13.282 11.23
Mica - 7.760 8.193 9.338 10.485 Low NK - NK 0
Nitrogen N 9.702 10.245 11.398 12.180 12.345 12.368 + + 12.176 10.11
Oxygen O 9.139 9.454 10.751 11.290 <00 <00 + + ND NA
Perlite - 7.410 7.890 9.280 9.685 10.790 11.296 + + 0
Phosphorus P 9.156 9.516 11.120 11.504 12.306 12.981 + + 11.482 11.52 11.22
Potassium K 9.119 9.478 11.104 11.471 11.127 13.366 + + 15.140 11.20 12.36
Pumice 7.61 8.237 9.471 10.200 10.158 11.158 + +
Quartz crystal - 6.200 6.400 7.640 8.778 0 NK NK 0
Sand and gravel 10.102 10.745 11.767 12.555 11.666 12.333 - 0 14.31
Sodium Na 9.308 10.101 11.223 11.799 12.240 <00 + + 16.301 NVA 12.21
Stone - 10.122 10.845 11.915 12.648 <00 <00 + + 0
Strontium Sr 6.300 6.600 8.252 8.488 8.554 9.245 + + 13.977 10.91
Sulfur S 9.382 10.144 1.253 12.104 11.128 12.104 15.504 NVA 10.81
Tale, soapstone, & pyrophyllite 7.620 8.318 9.407 10.274 9.623 10.350 + + 0
Vermiculite - 7.550 7.820 9.374 9.805 10.588 11.588 + + 0

10.585 11.302 12.416 13.229 12.936 13.630 15.348 15.46 12.88

nation heavily reliant on raw material exports to maintain
a balance of trade.

Means of accommodating the increasing demands are being
implemented, and include methods such as:

1. exploration and discovery of new ore bodies
2. development of new mines
3. increasing production of existing mines
4. working and reopening known deposits of lower grade
ore and tailings
5. recycling of materials
6. development of more efficient processes to convert
ores and metals into useful products.

The development of marine resources is important to the
maintenance of the international economic and political
balance and to support the standard of living in the
United States. While it is probably not feasible
or desirable for the United States to become self-
sufficient for the basic mineral commodities, the
Panel considers it prudent to develop adequate al-
ternate sources of supply from the sea.

Estimates of apparent marine mineral resources have been
developed by M. Cruickshank for dissolved, unconsolidated,
and consolidated deposits (Table 3). With the exception
of asbestos, graphite, and quartz crystals, where data are
available and deficien~cies have been predicted, alterna-
tive marine sources for the minerals exist and may exceed
existing land resources. While few of these reserves have
been positively identified at the present time, certain
specific commodities have been found along the outer con-
tinental shelf and on the deep seabed. As marine mining
and extractive technology are developed, it is believed
that these apparent resources will become viable mineral
sources.

EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL

Despite considerable recent interest in the mineral poten-
tial of the seafloor, the number of marine mineral deposits
now being utilized, even from under'the relatively acces-
sible waters of the world's continental shelves, is small.
This situation is particularly true in the case of the
United States continental margins where only a limited
number of marine mining activities have taken place. These
include the working of hard rock barite deposits and gold
placer deposits off Alaska's shore, the Grand Island Frasch
sulfur deposits in the Gulf of Mexico, and the deposits of
sand, gravel, and calcium carbonate (shell, coral, and
aragonite along the East and Gulf Coasts). marine mining
activities can be expected to increase, as the demand and
cost of land-based natural resources increase. Table 4
provides a classification of dissolved, unconsolidated,
and consolidated resources that are known to be in the
12

TABLE 4. Classification of marine mineral resources.
(M. Cruickshank and R. Marsden, Marine Mining: Section
20, SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Volume 2; I.A. Given
and A.B. Cummins, eds.), AIME, New York, 1973.

Marine Mineral Deposits

Unconsolidated
Continental Shelf, Continental Slope, Deep Sea,
Dissolved 0-200 M 200-3,500 M 3,500-6,000 M Consolidated
Seawater: Nonmetallics: Authigenics: Authigenics: Disseminated, massive, vein, tabular,
Fresh water Sand and gravel Phosphorite Ferromanganese nodules or stratified deposits of.
Metals and salts of: Lime sands and shells Ferromanganese oxides and assoc. Coal
Magnesium Silica sand and assoc. minerals Cobalt Ironstone
Sodium Semiprecious stones Metalliferous mud with: Nickel Limestone
Calcium Industrial sands Zinc Copper Sulfur
Bromine Phosphorite Copper Sediments: Tin
Potassium Aragonite Lead Red clays Gold
Sulphur Glauconite Silver Calcareous ooze Metallic sulfides
Strontium Heavy Minerals: Siliceous ooze Metallic salts
Boron Magnetite Hydrocarbons
Uranium Hmenite
Other elements Rutile
Metallijfrous Brines. Monazite
Concentrations of: Chromite
Zinc Zircon
Copper Cassiterite
Lead Rare & Precious Minerals:
Silver Diamonds
Platinum
Gold
Native copper

ocean. Dissolved deposits are contained in the seawater
and may be considered. to include dissolved minerals, such as
bromine and magnesium, and biogeochemical concentrations in
certain plants and animals, such as iodine in seaweeds or
phosphatic compounds in fish skeletons.

Unconsolidated deposits may be defined as those surface
or near surface deposits on the seabed amenable to dredg-
ing. These occur at all depths of the ocean and include
placer deposits of gold, heavy minerals, and construction
materials, such as sand, gravel and lime shells, generally
found in relatively shallow water. Surficial deposits of
phosphorite and ferromanganese oxides are found as loose
nodules on the seafloor in deeper waters. Other deposits
of marine origin include vast concentrations of siliceous
and calcareous oozes and unusually high concentrations of
metalliferous muds associated with active regions of sea-
floor spreading.

Consolidated deposits occurring as hard rock on the con-
tinental shelf may be as prolific and diverse as the
familiar mineral deposits mined on land. In the deep
seabed such deposits may include encrustations or indura-
tions of metalliferous ferromanganese oxides and possibly
other concentrations associated with geoactivity on the
seafloor. Detailed knowledge of marine deposits is very
small by comparison with the resources that may be projec-
ted by statistical inference.

Exploring for minerals in the seas is very difficult and
complex. Only a small percentage of the continental
margins and deep-ocean basins have been surveyed for hard
minerals. Before the full potential of these minerals can
be realized, the technological and engineering capabili-
ties to locate and assess them must be improved and applied.
Based upon present geological understanding of the nature
of the continental margins and deep seabeds, however, sub-
stantial deposits remain to be discovered.

Minerals on the United States continental shelves that
possess the potential for early economic development are
the surficial deposits of sand, gravel, and calcium
carbonate, placer deposits of titanium and gold, and
marine phosphorite deposits.

Sand and gravel deposits, which provide excellent poten-
tial sources of low cost building aggregate and road
materials lie seaward of many United States cities. Sand
for beach replenishment in recreation areas is abundant in
many offshore regions and can serve as a substitute for
dwindling land sources.

Calcium carbonate is being recovered from the seabed on
the continental shelves in the form of shells, shell
sands and muds, aragonite, and coral.
14

Placer deposits are concentrations of minerals produced by
the action of moving waters in rivers, waves on beaches,
or tidal currents. Many submerged placers on the ocean
floor are extensions of on-land placer deposits. Minerals
which may be concentrated in placer deposits include gold,
platinum, and ores of tin, iron, titanium, chromium, and
zirconium. A promising area for seabed gold placer
depcsits is in Norton Sound, Alaska. Gold is also known
to exist in submerged deposits off Oregon and California.

Submarine phosphorite occurs in many scattered localities
off the coasts of continents. The favored environment
is in areas of nutrient-rich upwelling waters where detri-
tal sedimentation is low. The principal offshore phos-
phorite nodule deposits of the United States continental
margin are in the California borderland region of f
southern California. These deposits may prove valuable
to the nation's eccnomy by augmenting the known reserves
and by fulfilling the needs of local markets. Recent
increases in the price of imported phosphates may result
in increased interest in the exploitation of these
deposits. Recognizing the possibility that leasing
applications for both oil and gas operations, and, in this
case, phosphorite, might occur in the same location,
special attention would need to be given to leasing and
regulatory questions.

It is believed that large deposits of copper, nickel and
other metals may be present in bedrock beneath continen-
tal shelves and could conceivably be mined in the future.
Little is known, however, about the potential of these
buri-ed consolidated rock deposits. En addition, the
nature and potential of the deep ocean metalliferous muds
are in an early stage of understanding, and the commercial
possibilities of these deposits, except for some in the
Red Sea, have not been studied.

Beyond the continental margins, in the deep-ocean basins,
manganese nodules and associated crusts and pavements
contain the deep ocean minerals most likely to be ex-
ploited in the near future. Bearing fine-grained metal
oxides, these are distributed widely over the floor of
the world's oceans. They vary widely in their composi-
tion, as well as in their physical and chemical pro-
perties. Considerable commercial activity exists in
developing these resources for their major component
metals, chiefly nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese.

To date, only a very small percentage of the deep seabed
has been surveyed extensively but enough has been learned
about the extent and location of these surficial deposits
to permit the first stages of commercial development to
begin. On the basis of known concentrations, average
compositions, and operating conditions, nodules from the
northeast Pacific have attracte'. the greatest attention.
These nodules are generally located in water depths of

2600 to 5500 meters (12,000 to 18,000 ft) and lie on deep
ocean siliceous and red clay sediments.

Access to these resources is important to the United
States and should be made available on fair and equitable
terms. The conditions under which deep seabed resources
will be available to nations is a major topic under con-
sideration at the United Nations Law of the Sea confer-
ences. The principal technology for developing nodule
resources resides with several United States firms and
this leadership is evidenced by the present activities.

In order to operate successfully on the seafloor for the
purpose of collecting or moving large amounts of materials,
it is important to have a knowledge of the nature and dis-
tribution of the materials being collected, the environ-
ment in which the materials exist, and the conditions
under which such operations will take place. The means
must, therefore, be available to locate and delineate the
extent of a deposit and to determine the important proper-
ties of the associated marine sediments that will bear on
the design of the machines to operate therein. In addi-
tion to the properties of the seafloor and associated
terrain, the environmental loads imposed by the water
column will have a major influence on the design of the
engineering structures needed to mine the deposits. Most
of the nodules occur at the sediment-water interface and,
accordingly, there is no need to penetrate the substrate
during dredging operations.

In evaluating marine mining potential, two basic con-
straints must be considered:

1. Resource Assessment

Technical capabilities to determine the important para-
meters associated with continental margin resource
assessment have not progressed appreciably in the last
five to ten years. In the deep ocean, however, several
new tools have been developed and these have permitted
the discovery of many potential ore bodies. A most
important need is to develop new and improved instruments
and equipment to conduct rapid and effective surveys over
wide areas of the continental margins that will lead to
the initial discovery of potential ore bodies in these
areas. However, before new tools can be developed, a
better understanding of marine placer depositional mecha-
nisms must be obtained in order to define the requirements
for equipment performance.

To provide for safe and cost-effective reconnaissance
surveys of coastal waters, remote sensing systems are
needed that can provide information on sediment dispersal
patterns, currents, and potential mineral sites. Improved
coring tools and techniques for mineral sampling and
evaluation are also needed. The available devices for

coring and spatial sampling of potential ore bodies are
expensive, slow in collecting samples, and require specia-
lized ship facilities. Rotary coring systems in use on
survey ships has not yet proven to be reliable or effec-
tive in all instances. Short coring tools, such as the
gravity corer and the piston corer, are of little value
because they are limited to shallow penetration, and,
therefore, deeper resources remain undiscovered. The
rotary tool has been more successful on hard sand and
gravel bottoms, but it causes considerable disturbance
of the sample. The need exists for new approaches that
include further developments of vibratory corers,
pressure-jetting hydraulic systems, or corers based on
the principle of electroosmosis.

In the deep ocean, one of the most important needs is the
development of fully automatic systems to produce
reconnaissance-scale topographic, geophysical and geolo-
gical maps. Existing tools, including deep ocean televi-
sion systems and cameras, wide beam bathymetric systems,
and free fall samplers, have been used to locate potential
ore bodies; however, the costs have been very high. New
tools and techniques are needed to provide an order of
magnitude increase in capabilities.

Bathymetric measurements, taken from the surface by small
ships equipped with wide beam sonar transducers, cannot
provide realistic representations of the deep ocean sea-
floor in which the manganese nodules of paramount interest
occur. The development of a commercial version of the
Navy's narrow beam bathymetric system, in association with
an acoustic seafloor navigation array, is needed to permit
the preparation of micro-bathymetric charts from a small sur-
vey ship operating at 8-15 knots. Data will need to be
automatically processed on shipboard or ashore to produce
contour maps for direct exploration on a real time basis.
Micro-topographical maps, necessary for detailed resource
assessment and mine development, will have to be improved.
A system with such capability might be developed from the
Scripps Institution's "deep-tow" system. It uses a
narrow-beam echo sounder for topographic measurements,
side-scan sonar, with several scales of resolution, for
determining such bottom features as location and shape
of rock outcrops and small escarpments, a 3-1/2 kHz echo
sounder to delineate the details of shallow structures;
stereo photographic equipment and a proton magnetometer.
In addition, an acoustic transponder navigation system
enables accurate positioning.

In order to advance the state-of-the-art of deep ocean
resource assessment, there is a need for (1) the
capability to conduct in-situ metal analysis and evalua-
tion, (2) improved side-scan and sector-scan sonar
equipment, (3) improved television systems to allow for
relatively high speed towing (3-5 knots), (4) automatic
television signal scanning apparatus to provide a nodule
census, and (5) improved sample collection devices,

operable from the surface and capable of collecting a
large number of samples at known discrete locations to
permit statistical determination of the percentage of
various metals in the nodules.

2. Environmental Baselines

Depending on the type of deposit and its geographic
location, each mining operation will have a different set
of environmental parameters that must be determined to
define the interactions between the environment and the
mining system. The offshore petroleum industry has long
recognized the importance of the acquisition of natural
environmental information for use in the safe and effec-
tive design of many types of drilling structures and
other equipment. Environmental data collected mostly by
private firms are proprietary and generally only available
at considerable cost. Much of the available information
is limited to areas in the Gulf of Mexico where the major
oil activities are concentrated.

oceanographic and meteorological data in areas where
marine mining is likely to occur needs to be acquired for
the determination of environmental loads. These data
will enable engineers to design ocean mining structures
that are safe for personnel and the environment as well
as more efficient and cost-effective.13 Government
regulation of marine mining will require full considera-
tion of the physical environment and environmental trade-
offs.

PROBABLE AREAS OF EARLY OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF MINING

Based on geological and geophysical surveys performed by
government and academic organizations in the past few
years and the limited amount of industry information made
available, the Panel considers that there are several
sites with near-term (within the next two decades)
commercial mining potential. Among these are:

1. Gulf of Maine - potential for lode deposits, chiefly
sulf ides in shallow waters, and some potential for
sand and heavy- minerals.

2. Massachusetts Coast - parts of Cape Cod Bay and
Buzzards Bay possess good potential for sand, rare
earth heavy minerals, and possibly coal.

3. New Jersey-New York Bight -known sand deposits.

4. Southeast Atlantic Coast --known beach resource of
heavy mineral sands, but the sand potential of the
seaward outer continental shelf lands is incompletely
known.

3. Gulf of Mexico -- potential for hard minerals on the
outer continental shelf appears to be limited as a
18

whole, although the United States Geological Survey
has identified abundant black sands (including titan-
ium-bearing minerals) of f the Texas coast; oyster
shells may prove to be a resource on the outer conti-
nental shelf in the future. There is a possibility
for finding economically attractive deposits of
finely divided metal sulfides that were formed in
place on the continental slope.

6. Southwest Pacific Coast --known deposits of sand,
gravel, and phosphorite.

7. Northwest Pacific Coast outer continental shelf
of f northern California and Oregon is known to have
modest placer deposits of gold and other heavy metals.

8. Great Lakes - although not outer continental shelf
lands, the portion of the lake beds within the
United States are known to have manganese and copper
ore deposits.

9. Bering Sea -- outer continental shelf has the most
promising potential for mining hard minerals of all
United States outer continental shelf waters. Placer
deposits of this potential include gold, platinum,
cassiterite (tiLn), scheelite (tungsten), rare earths,
ilmenite (titanium), and others. Lode deposits are
likely to include barite and copper, lead and zinc
(as sulf ides), and molybdenum, while deposits of
chemical precipitates of uranium-bearing minerals
are probable in some anoxic sites. Government,
industry, and academic groups have been conducting
hard mineral surveys in this area for more than ten
years.

10. Arctic Shelf -- largely of unknown potential, but
drainage from metal-bearing provenance rocks probably
washes some noble metals into outer continental
shelf high-energy sand sites.

11. Insular States and Territories -- although few mineral
surveys have been made in the outer continental shelf,
or its equivalent waters off American Samoa, Puerto
R~ico, Hawaii, or the Trust Territories, the potential
for volcanic and basalt-related minerals and manganese
crusts appears likely.

Thus, the outer continental shelf of the mainland United
States north of Virginia on the East Coast, the West Coast,
and the Gulf of Mexico, and the shelf in the central and
northern Bering Sea, offer the prime exploratory regions
for mineral mining. These areas should receive attention.
Although presently considered to be marginal, secondary
sites for hard minerals include the outer continental
shelf lands off the Carolinas and the southeast Atlantic
Coast, and of f Texas. Much exploration and inventory re-

mains to be done. The several worldwide potential sites
reviewed by Moore in 197214 indicate that the United States
stands in a very favorable position with regard to the
probable wealth of hard minerals on its outer continental
shelf.

8 Bureau of Land Management. 1973. Mining and
Minerals Policy, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior.

9 Forrester, Jay W. 1971. World Dynamics, Boston:
Wright-Allen Press.

"' Meadows, D.H., et al. 1972. The Limits to Growth,
New York: New American Library, Inc.

21 Cruickshank, M.J. 1975. Technological and Environ-
mental Considerations in the Exploration and Ex-
ploitation of Marine Minerals, Ph.D. dissertation,
Madison: The University of Wisconsin.

12 The amounts on this table range from $200,000
(0.2 x 106) to $24.6 million trillion (24.6 x
1018). For comparison, all numbers are reduced
to exponential fractions and expressed as Order
of Magnitude Dollars ranging from $0M6.200 to
$0M20.246, using this notation.

13 Marine Board, National Research Council. 1975.
Information and Data Exchange for Ocean Engineers:
An Approach to Improvement, Washington, D.C.:
National Academy of Sciences.

1 Moore, J.R. 1972. Exploitation of Ocean Mineral
Resources - Perspectives and Predictions. Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol.
72, pp. 193-206.

CHAPTER THREE

OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF MINING

The continental shelf is usually defined as the gently
sloping, shallow water platform that extends from the
coasts to the shelf break, after which the continental
slope descends relatively steeply to the deep ocean floor.
The worldwide average width of a shelf is 71 kilometers
(44 miles), and the average termination depth is 140
-meters (450 ft)>'5 although the accepted legal definition
of the termination depth is 200 meters (650 ft). The
continental slope marks the submerged structural edge of
the continents and overlies the transition area from
thick continental crust to thin oceanic crusts.16 Shelf
and slope together are often referred to as the continen-
tal terrace. Much less is known about the sediments or
bathymetry of the slope than of the shelf. Recent
research interest, coupled with such new techniques as
acoustic profiling, is increasing our knowledge of these
areas.

The inner continental shelf has been defined as extending
from shore to the 5 kilometer (3 mile) limit of the
territorial seas.

Placer-type deposits, such as sand and gravel, may be
found most typically on the shelf in water depths of the
order of 92 meters (300 ft) or less, whereas the phospho-
rite deposits generally exist at water depths greater
than 92 meters (300 ft), and in certain instances seaward
of the continental shelf as deep as 457-762 meters (1,500-
2,500 ft).

It is anticipated that in-situ deposits of hard minerals
in the bedrock of the co;nt netal shelf occur with the
same frequency that they appear under similar geologic
conditions on land. Until now, few deposits have been
located on the continental shelves of the United States,
probably because surveys to define the deposits have not
been made. in other parts of the world, deposits of coal,
iron ore, and tin have been worked underground in rela-
tively shallow water, chiefly as seaward extensions of
known coastal deposits. In the United States, economic
sulfur deposits have been located in the outer continental
shelf, using exploration methods applicable to the search
for oil.

The mineral deposits of interest differ from the surround-
ing seafloor materials, and their presence may be detected
by measuring distinctive physical properties such as
density, seismic velocity, magnetism, electrical and heat
21

conductivity, and induced polarization or chemical proper-
ties. Useful methods of measurement need to have adequate
resolution and penetration to detect the size of the
deposit and the depth at which it lies below the bottom.
In the usual exploratory techniques, a two-dimensional
profile of the quantity is measured along a track across
a region where the mineral deposits are considered to exist.
The measurements are conventionally presented on a contour
map which joins points of equal value, thereby outlining
areas of high and low values.

There are several exploratory methods used on the conti-
nental shelf. Some provide direct information about the
shape and composition of a deposit. These include verti-
cal and horizontal echo sounders to produce acoustic
images; underwater still and television cameras; corers,
dredges, and drills. others provide indirect quantitative
measurements of the physical properties of consolidated
and unconsolidated materials. These include seismic
reflection; seismic refraction; magnetic; gravity; elec-
tric; he-at flow, and radioactive. Still others indicate
the presence of deposits by analyzing the constituents in
unconsolidated and consolidated samples of the seafloor
sediment. These include flame and arc emission spectro-
scopy; atomic absorption spectroscopy; x-ray fluore-
scence; electro-chemical methods and calorimetry.

Surveying the seafloor for Tmineral deposits requires
accurate navigation techniques if worthwhile delineation
of deposits and maps are to be produced. Methods for
accurate positioning are available in areas which are
within 320 kilometers (220 miles) of land stations.
These areas are generally those associated with continen-
tal margin deposits.

TECHNOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

The objectives of this section are:

1. to predict how mining may develop on the United
States continental shelf and slope over the next
two decades;

2. to describe the technology which may be used, and

3. to define the manner in which the various mining
techniques may impinge on the marine environment.

outer continental shelf mineral deposits can be
mined in more than one way. Likewise, a given
mining technique may have application to more than
one type of mineral deposit. This relationship is
shown in Table 5.
In order to anticipate the types of probable outer
continental shelf mining operations that will de-
22

TABLE 5. Mlining Techniques versus outer continental shelf
deposit types.

MINING CONTINENTAL SHELF CONTINENTAL SLOPE
TECHNIQUES
UNCONSOLIDATED CONSOLIDATED UNCONSOLIDATED CONSOLIDATED
DEPOSITS DEPOSITS DEPOSITS DEPOSITS

TRAILING SUCTION SAND/GRAVEL
HOPPER DREDGE SHELLS

SUCTION DREDGE, HEAVY MINERALS PHOSPHORITE
ANCHORED

N) CUTTERHEAD PIPE- SAND/GRAVEL
LINE DREDGE SHELLS

BUCKET LADDER HEAVY MINERALS
DREDGE

DRAG DREDGE PHOSPHORITE

CONTINUOUS LINE PHOSPHORITE
BUCKET

UNDERGROUND VARIOUS VARIOUS
MINING

SOLUTION MINING VARIOUS VARIOUS

velop, six hypothetical, but possibly typical mining
operations for various mineral deposits are described
in the following pages. In addition to a description
of the mining equipment and its production cycle, three
related matters are considered: the preproduction time
frame, the likely deposit size, and the environmental4
impact potential.

The six hypothetical mining operations are described
in the following sections:

I. Sand and Gravel (Case I)
II. Shells (Case II)
III. Phosphorite (Case III)
137. Heavy Minerals (Case IV)
V7. Underground Mining (Case V7)
VI. Solution Mining (Case VI)

Sand and Gravel (Case I)

Sand and gravel, utilized primarily in construction work,
but also for the restoration of storm-damaged beaches and
for waterfront fill, appear to offer the main potential
for continental shelf mining. At present, however, ex-
cept for a few relatively small operations in bays, tidal
rivers, estuaries, and large lakes, most United States
sand and gravel aggregate comes from land-based operations.
The annual nationwide production is approximately 920
million metric tons (1 billion tons) . By the year 2000,
projections show the probable annual demand to be 3 to 4
billion metric tons (3 to 4 billion tons). While inland
resources are virtually limitless, there is an imbalance
between the distribution of the resources and the markets.
Transportation plays an important part in the economics
of production; truck transportation for as few as 40
kilometers (25 miles) can double the cost to the consumer.
The problems of land production are not limited solely to
resource availability and economics. Urban sprawl, zoning
laws, and environmental constraints have limited the use
of many sand and gravel deposits.

Where metropolitan areas, navigable waters, and favorable
marine geology occur in juxtaposition, the continental
shelf offers potential for adding to the nation's sand
and gravel resource base. This has occurred in Europe,
where eight nations annually mine more than 36 million
metric tons (40 million tons) of sand and gravel from
the North and Baltic seas. The United Kingdom supplies
16 percent of its need for construction aggregate from
offshore. Similarly, Japan annually mines over 55
million metric tons (60 million tons) of sand, or 19
percent of its total needs.

Favorable are-as off the. United States coast are shown in
Figures 1-3. The specific market areas of interest i-n-

Sand

' Phosphorite
m Gravel

Shelf edge

-- Area of interest

FIGURE 1. Promising geographic locations for OCS hard
mineral mining. (Bureau of Land Management, Draft Environ-
mental Statement - Proposed Outer Continental Shelf Hard
Mineral Mining Operating and Leasing Regulations)

Maine

N.H.

Conn.

N.J.
?. Gravel or sandy gravel
W Medium-fine to coarse sand
;4 r-// - W1 Fine-grained sediments
_ ~ - I ~ Shelf edge
,De

FIGURE 2. Distribution of sediments on the continental
FIGURE 2. Distribution of sediments on the continental
shelf, North Carolina to Maine. (Bureau of Land Manage-
ment, Draft Environmental Statement - Proposed Outer
Continental Shelf Hard Mineral Mining Operating and
Leasing Regulations). Adapted from Schlee (1968), Schlee
and Pratt (1970), and Milliman (1970).

JacksnvilleI
ATLANTIC

X\ OCEAN

\t A~~~~~aytonaX
0 0 ~~~Beach I

GULF OF MEXICO Cape
Kennedy i

(/ ~ Canova~% ~~Can
Beach

Palm Beac

m Fine silty sands Miami
ElI Rock outcrops
m Medium-fine to coarse sand
--Shelf edge /

0 a

FIGURE 3. Distribution of sediments, Florida Atlantic
continental shelf. (Bureau of Land Management, Draft
Environmental Statement - Proposed Outer Continental
Shelf Hard Mineral Mining Operating and Leasing Regu-
lations). Compiled from Milliman (1972), and Uchupi,
(1968).

clude Boston, New York, Washington, D.C., Norfolk,
Southeastern Florida, Los Angeles and San Francisco.

While inland experience indicates that only one in 100
exploration targets will lead to production, those that
do will take between seven to ten years from the initial
exploration to full production. This is exclusive of
delays caused by leasing procedures and environmental
considerations. It consists of initial market studies
and prospecting activities, detailed follow-up explora-
tion and marketing arrangements, and construction of the
mining system, shoreside processing facility, and market
distribution system.

In this case, firm X studies the metropolitan markets
appearing to have offshore resource potential. It also
holds preliminary discussions with the major firms that
market construction aggregate in each area to assess
their receptiveness to the notion of purchasing a supply
of offshore material. A decision is reached as to the
prime target area.
(Time = 1/3 yr)

After leasing arrangements are made, prospecting is
begun. Offshore deposits of sand and gravel are of
two principal types: glacial deposits of the Pleisto-
cene age, formed when the sea level was lower, and depo-
sits derived from rivers that drain the adjoining land
masses. In addition, submerged ancient beach deposits
are known to exist. Both bathymetry and acoustic sub-
bottom profiling are used to discover and delineate
the existence, if any, of a large, linear-tending,
submerged river terrace. A few drill samples may
confirm the presence of sand and gravel.

Marketing arrangements are worked out whereby firm X will
furnish, subject to the favorable outcome of more detailed
exploration sampling, 920 thousand metric tons (1 million
tons) of an agreed-upon quality of sand and gravel each
year for 10 years, commencing four years from this date.
(Time = 1/2 yr)

Delineation of the deposit is conducted next, in order to
answer fully two questions: (1) does the deposit contain
marketable amounts of sand and/or gravel? and (2) can the
deposit be mined by state-of-art techniques? With respect
to (1), at issue is a) the ratio of sand to gravel and
the amount and kind of impurities; b) the relative demand
for sand and gravel, which reflect the market situation
in the area. In some cases the demand will be for gravel,
because sand may be relatively available onshore. In
other cases the demand will be for sand. In this case,
the ideal dredge material is considered to be 40 percent
sand and 60 percent gravel. Impurities normally consist
of clay, silt, fine sand, and shells. Generally, 5 percent
impurities is considered a maximum for a deposit to be
mineable.

Both questions (1) and (2) above can be answered by prob-
ing the deposit with a large diameter 177 cm (30 in.)]
drill sampling tool. This provides a bulk sample which,
while not undisturbed, is adequate for deposit evaluation.

The size of the deposit is found to contain well in excess
of the desired nine million metric tons (10 million tons),
it is found to be of adequate quality, and to be amenable
to state-of-art mining techniques. (Time = 1 yr)

Based on the characteristics of the deposit, capital is
committed for the purpose of constructing a mining system.
At the same time, the marketing partner commits capital for
the construction of a shoreside processing facility and
purchase of trucks for the short haul to urban construc-
tion sites. (Time = 3 yrs)
ITotal time to production = 5 to 5-1/2 yrs]

Sand and gravel are economically mined from the seafloor
in two ways: suction dredging and clam-shell dredging.
European operations favor the former; Japanese, the latter.
The clam-shell is used by the Japanese because it is econo-
mic for their numerous, low-volume, close-to-shore opera-
tions. Coastal erosion problems, caused by mining too
close to shore, have focused firm X's attention on a target
far from shore, amenable to suction dredging.

There are two main systems of suction dredging applicable
to the United States outer continental shelf: trailing
suction hopper dredge and cutterhead pipeline dredge.

The cutterhead pipeline dredge has the potential to oper-
ate up to a few kilometers from shore and is described in
Case II. Firm X's deposit is 128 kilometers (80 miles)
from port, so it selects the trailing suction hopper
dredge.

The trailing suction hopper dredge ranges in size from
about 920 to about 9,000 metric tons (1,000 to about
10,000 tons). One or more high-head centrifugal pumps
are used to dredge a slurry of solids from the seafloor
through suction pipes. Dredging to about 37 meters
(120 ft) below the water surface is commonplace; below
that, jet assistance is utilized.

If the dredge is equipped with a swell compensator and
articulated dredge pipe(s), most of the relative motion
between the ship and the dredgehead can be accommodated.
This prevents the transfer of the weight of the ship to
the dredgehead and enables the dredge to work routinely
in seas up to 2 meters (6 ft). An operator can assist
the swell compensator in heavy seas by manually working
the main winch controlling the dredge pipe, enabling the
dredge to work in seas up to 6 meters (20 ft), although
this is not commonplace.
29

The slurry, containing about 10 percent solids, is fed
to the hopper(s) where most of the solids remain. The
excess water flows overboard, along with the suspended
fine particles. The dredge mines while in motion,
creating, as shown in Figure 4, numerous shallow trenches
in the seafloor, each about � meter (3 ft) wide and
30 cm (1 ft) deep.

Silt

FIGURE 4. Trailer dredging.

The size of the dredge is optimized on the basis of the
market arrangement, whereby 920,000 metric tons (1 million
tons) per year can be utilized over ten years. Firm X
decides to construct a 3,000 ton dredge and supply the one
million tons per year commitment by using it virtually
full-time.

Firm X estimates that it can deliver the aggregate for
50 cents per ton. Its partner will pay $1.00 per ton,
process the sand and gravel at a cost of $.50 per ton, and
deliver the materials to the market place for $2.50 per
ton. While the United States average cost of inland-
processed sand and gravel is about one-half this, the high
cost of truck delivery makes this figure highly competitive
in certain urban markets.

The size of the deposit may be a function of market con-
siderations, where the market is restricted. After the
economics of different systems are costed and compared,
the resultant amortization period is translated into ton-
nage requirements. This requirement may be met by one or
more deposits. The minimum required mineable tonnage is
related to the marketplace and the mining systems. The
deposit discovered by firm X is under 28 meters (90 ft)
of water and contains zones of low-quality material. None-
theless, the volume of high-quality material within reach

of the 36 meter (120 ft) dredge contains well in excess of
the required nine million metric tons (10 million tons).
(Figure 5)

......................................................
Sea Level

36 m (120''
= Minable Volume

_sea_ __ _ AW gravel

sand - -----

sand/gravel

FIGURE 5

Firm X's deposit lies 96 kilometers (60 miles) offshore,
and 128 kilometers (80 miles) from the processing site.
(Figure 6)

Deposit

Add 60 Miles

* Processing
Plant

FIGURE 6. Deposit site to shore (60 miles); deposit
site to processing plant (80 miles).
31

The mining cycle takes about 24 hours to complete, includ-
ing five hours for loading at the mine site and transit to
the processing plant, and three hours for unloading and return
to the mine site. Operation is continuous except for about
10-15 percent down-time for maintenance and adverse weather.

The dredge utilizes a coarse-grid steel framework across
the opening of the suction head to prevent large rocks
from passing up the suction pipe. Coarser sizes are
screened off and rejected after passing through the pump.
At the other end of the particle size spectrum, fine
material is washed overboard. Vibrating screens allow
part of the sand fraction to be dumped back into the
ocean because the ratio of sand to gravel mined is about
70:30, while the market mix requires about 40:60.

The shore-based support facility for the dredge includes
wharves, stockpiling, and processing facilities, as well
as a treatment plant. Dry discharging of the dredge is
accomplished by scraper-buckets coupled with over-the-
side conveyor belts. With this system, scraper-buckets
are rapidly hauled up ramps at the forward part of the
hopper and then emptied into an elevated hopper, which
feeds an over-the-side conveyor belt carrying the
material ashore.
Clay, salt, shells and other impurities are washed out by
shoreside processing techniques, which then separate the
material into a variety of sizes for blending as required
by the market. A simplified flow sheet follows:

Initial Separation
? By Gyratory CrusherI*

2,1-1/2" (Crushed Rock) <1-1/2" (Sand and Gravel)

Y ~~~~~~~~~~I
econdary Crushing and Washing and Screening and
creening Classifying

rushed Rock! Finer~avel and-Fin
3 size I3 sizes (2 sizes

Ponds
FIGURE 7. Shoreside processing.

The environmental impact potential of first order effects
(e.g., excavation, turbidity plume) is obvious. In many
cases the second and third order effects are easily

deduced. In others, research is required to assess the
ultimate consequences.

Major environmental effects include the excavation of
trenches in the seafloor (complicated by rejection of non-
marketable sand fraction), creation of a turbidity plume by
washing overboard clay particles taken up in the dredge
pipe, and production of a blanket of fines covering the
seafloor downcurrent from the dredge.

Excavation volume includes the sum of the marketable
material, the fraction to be rejected, and the overburden
initially stripped away. In moving 920,000 metric tons
(I million tons) of product to shore annually, an equal
amount of sand is rejected in order to reduce the sand:
gravel ratio from 70:30 to 40:60. The 1,800,000 metric
tons (2 million tons) of annual excavation results in one
or more depressions in the ocean floor equal to the thick-
ness of the deposit [3 meters (10 ft)] and equal in area to
about 405 hectares (100 acres). As mining proceeds, the
rejected sand released above the mined-out area partly
smooths the bottom contours reducing the excavation
depressions.

The turbidity plume is caused by the daily five hour
excavation period that recovers 2,700 metric tons (3,000
tons) of marketable product while an equal volume of sand
is obtained, screened, and rejected. The plume results
from the washing overboard of the fine material
suspended in the discharge of seawater from the hopper.
The daily new increment of plume consists of 55,000
metric tons (60,000 tons) of water and about 180 metric
tons (200 tons) of material finer than 200 mesh. Because
the fines stay in suspension for days, the impact of daily
activity is cumulative.

The blanket of fines settles gradually to the seafloor as
it travels with the currents, building up a very thin
veneer over a large area.

Firm X monitors the current pattern in the area and
is quite certain where the fines are traveling. When the
direction of travel at a certain time of year poses a
problem to spawning grounds, for instance, tirm X de-
lays mining until the situation changes.

Shell (Case ri)

Ancient reefs of oyster skeletons frequently covered by
several feet of sediment, are being mined in several
locations off the United States coast-all in state
waters, and all, at present, in estuaries leading to the
Gulf of Mexico. The dredged material is used for road
fill and as a source of calcium carbonate in the manufac-
ture of cement.

While the potential for shell mining on the outer
continental shelf appears modest, deposits have been
reported that could serve as important additions to the
resource base in a few areas of the southeastern United
States.

Generally, either a suction hopper dredge is used (as
described in Case I) or a cutterhead pipeline dredge. in
addition, small deposits often are mined by barge-mounted
clanshells or drag-lines. The following pages describe a
hypothetical but possibly typical operation on the outer
continental shelf.

inasmuch as shells are a low-cost bulk commodity of value
to nearby coastal metropolitan areas, the sequence of
events, as well as the time frame from market study to
production, is similar to that for sand and gravel, as
described in Case I.

In Case II, living reefs are found close enough to Firm X's
deposit to cause concern that a turbidity plume could
affect them. Therefore, a cutterhead pipeline dredge is
selected so that the disposal of fines can be accomplished
onshore. The cutterhead pipeline dredge is similar to the
suction dredge but is equipped with a rotating cutter
surrounding the intake end of the suction pipe. This
cutter loosens the material which is then sucked through
the dredging pumps to screens where the shells are
separated from the impurities. The shells are loaded
by conveyor belts into boxes while the waste impurities
are pumped ashore through a floating pipeline leading
to a disposal area.

The rationale presented in Case I for deposit size is
generally applicable to shell deposits also. The de-
posit is 19 kilometers (11 miles) offshore. A fleet
of barges transports the shells 22 kilometers (14 miles)I
from the dredge to a cement plant, while a floating
pipeline transports the waste fines to a diked disposal
area 26 kilometers (16 miles) from the dredge (see Figure4
8). Booster pumps are stationed every 900 meters (3,000
ft) along the pipeline to keep the sediments moving in
suspension.

The production cycle differs from Case I in two major
ways: dredging is continuous, except for down-time due
to bad weather and maintenance work, and the waste fines
are handled onshore. Each barge is loaded in two hours
off-loaded in two hours, and requires two hours for
transit each way, for a cycle time of eight hours. Five
barges, including one standby unit, are utilized to main-
tain the flow of shells to the cement plant. The bottom
areas and excavation volumes involved are similar to those
of Case I except that all excavated material travels to
shore.

Deposit

shells from dredge to cement plant while a floating
pipeline transports the waste fines from dredge to
disposal area.

A fill site encompassing an area of 81 hectares (200 acres)
is enclosed by a riprap dike extending three meters (10 ft)
above high water. The floating pipeline discharges water
and suspended fine material into the impounded area. Once
inside the impoundment, the solid material settles and
the displaced water floats to the sea through spillways in
the dike. The disposal site is designed in such a manner
that nearly all suspended fines are trapped and the dis-
charge water contains little or no more solids per unit
volume than the receiving waters.

There are two main first-order environmental considerations:
excavation of the seafloor and the discharge of an enor-
mous volume of saline water into a nearshore, brackish area
via an impoundment basin. The 2700 metric ton (3,000 ton)
per day operation yields about ten times that amount of
water. In addition, the shell delivered to the cement
plant is washed and the resultant high-salinity water dis-
charged into a nearshore area.

Phosphorite~ (Case nIII

Submarine phosphorite occurs in several forms--as nodules,
as phosphatic sands and muds, and as beds of consolidated
sediments in consolidated rock. It has been found on the
continental shelves and slopes of several areas of the
world including Southern California (Figure 9), the south-

Santa Barbara

~~ ~~~~Santa Barbar s.High Long Beach

San Nicholas Bank S. Catalina Ridge

30 Mie Bank
Cortez-Tanner BankV/.

40 M a Bank ~~~~San Diego
Phosphorite Areas Coronado Bank

FIGURE 9. Phosphorite areas. (Bureau of Land Manage-
ment, Draft Environmental Statement - Proposed Outer
Continental Shelf Hard Mineral Mining Operating and
Leasing Regulations)

eastern United States from North Carolina to southern
Florida, Mexico, South Africa and Australia.

While a worldwide shortage of phosphorite does not exist,
environmental concerns regarding strip mining on lard in
the United States and rapidly evolving needs , par-
ticularly for the production of fertilizer, have resulted
in a strong commercial interest.

Because the economical mining of submarine phosphorite has
not yet been accomplished, the hypothetical but typical
mining situation described on the following pages is based
solely on concepts.

The market study covers the western United States and
Canada. Demand projections are good in one growth area,
where fertilizer producers are interested in a new source
of phosphorite rock to satisfy a part of their future
needs. (Time = I yr).

The offshore prospecting area is explored by means of closed
circuit television and bottom photography. Areas of dense
nodule coverage, potentially amenable to mining, are
sampled by means of drag dredge and box corer. A target
area is located and tentative market arrangements are worked
out. (Time = I yr).

A lease is secured and detailed delineation of the mineral
deposit is conducted in order to assess the quantity, dis-
tribution, and quality of the ore body. (Time = 2 yrs).

The ore body appears to be promising economically, so market
arrangements are completed and capital committed for the con-
struction of a mining system, and transportation from shore
to fertilizer plant is arranged. (Time =3 yrs).
ITotal time to production = 7 yrs].

Mining systems with possible application to nodular
phosphorite recovery include the suction dredge, either
trailing or anchored, the continuous line bucket (-see
Chapter 4) and the drag-dredge. Firm X selects a large
drag-dredge, its size tailored to the characteristics of
the deposit and the market. The phosphorite is recovered
by a large dredge bucket that scrapes nodules from the
surface of the deposit and feeds them into a barge for
transportation to shore (Figure 10).

The deposit is found in 180 meters (600 ft) of water, 48
kilometers (30 miles) from shore, and contains 2.7 million
metric tons C3 milli-on tons) of mineable nodules of phos-
phorite at an average concentration of 96 kg/in2 (20 Ibs/
ft2). The dredged-material is barged 64 kilometers
(40 miles) to a shoreside processing plant (Figure 11)
where it is washed free of impurities and loaded in rail-
road cars for shipment 640 kilometers (400 miles) to the
inland chemical fertilizer plant.

FIGURE 10. The deep-sea drag dredge. In shallow
water an effective method of mining sea-floor sur-
ficiel sediments. (John Mero, Mineral Resources of
the Sea)

For a capital cost of $3.5 million and operating costs of
$1.8 million per year, the mineral product is delivered
to the railroad at a cost of $8 per ton and sold to the
fertilizer plant for $12 per ton.

The annual production of 360,000 metric tons (400,000
tons) of nodular phosphorite are recovered by means of
38-cubic meter (50 cubic yard) dredge buckets, scraping
an average of 18 metric tons (20 tons) of nodules from
the surface of the deposit every 20 minutes. The operation
is continuous except for 20 percent down-time for maintenance
and weather.

The nodules are loaded into a 650 metric ton (700 ton)
barge, which takes about a half-day to fill. When full,
the barge steams to the processing plant (4 hrs) for un-
loading (4 hrs). Three barges, including one standby
barge, service the production unit.

As the nodules are loaded into the barge, they are washed
to remove clay and other impurities. After dry unloading
from the barge, the nodules are washed again and then
dried for rail shipment to the fertilizer plant.

Deposit

30 Miles

Plant

FIGURE 11. In a phosphorite mining operation the
dredged material is barged to a shoreside processing
plant, then loaded in railroad cars for shipment to
inland chemical fertilizer plant.

The first order environmental effects are three: strip-
ping of the nodules from the seafloor; the creation of a
turbidity plume at the barge by the washing of the mined
material; and the shoreside washing of the material for
final removal of impurities.

At an average of 96 kg/m2 (20 lbs/sq ft), nearly 4 square
kilometers (2 sq miles) of seafloor is stripped each year
to produce the 360,000 metric tons (400,000 tons). The
turbidity plume at the dredge is minimal, as most of the
fine material is washed out during the act of drag dredg-
ing. The discharge waste water at the shoreside process-
ing plant will contain few fines but it will contain salt.

Heavy Minerals (Case IV)

This hypothetical operation is the mining of placer gold
in the Bering Sea 10 kilometers (6 miles) offshore of
Nome, Alaska. The deposit covers approximately 8 square
kilometers (3 sq miles), occurs at two parallel submerged
beach placers about 92 meters (100 yds) wide, 1 kilometer
(.5 mile) apart, and extends parallel to the existing
shoreline for almost 10 kilometers (6 miles). The water
depth varies between 18 to 23 meters (59 to 75 ft) over
the deposit, and the depth from seabed to bedrock varies
from 9 to 15 meters (29 to 50 ft).
39

The gold occurs near the bedrock in a lenticular section
varying between 1 and 2 meters (2 and 6 ft) in thick-
ness. Overburden is partially cemented gravelly material
with a top layer of mobile muddy sand. The ore averages
3 grams (1 oz) per cubic meter (1 cubic yd), or about 3
ppm. About 5 cubic meters (7 cubic yds) of overburden
must be removed for every 1 cubic meter (1 cubic yd) of
ore.

Working time is limited to approximately 185 days because
of winter ice and occasional summer storms. The equipment
chosen to work this comparatively low grade deposit ($2 per
cubic yd at $140 per oz gold) is a 2 cubic meter (2 cubic
yd) ladder dredge, capable of digging to 49 meters (160 ft)
below water surface. The throughput of this dredge is
approximately 31,000 cubic meters (40,000 cubic yds) per
day, or 6 million cubic meters (8 million cubic yds) per
work year. This capacity is necessary to reduce the unit
cost of mined ore, taking into account the restraints of
working time, difficult digging, and rough seas, all of
which require special design features on the dredge. The
ore is processed on the dredge by standard gravity methods.
Concentrates, consisting mainly of black sand, amount to
approximately 100 parts per million of the throughput or
about 3 cubic meters (4 cubic yds) per day. The remaining
30,995 cubic meters (39,996 cubic yds) is returned to the
seafloor, far enough from the working face to avoid being
dredged a second time. The standard method of separation
of fine gold from concentrates is by amalgamation with mer-
cury, followed by distillation, or by differential solution
of the gold in potassium cyanide, followed by re-precipitation
using zinc metal as the agent. The small volume involved,
when dealing with concentrates only, permits close control of
these operations within a closed cycle system.

Environmental impacts result from the disturbance of the
ground by the excavation process and from disposal of most
of the excavated material. Fine sediments are dispersed
in a turbidity plume during this period, according to
the local dynamic patterns. Although a large excavation
is required in the working area of the dredge, the
net result of the operation consists of an increase
in elevation of the seafloor by as much as 8 meters
(25 ft). This could have a measurable effect on wave
diffraction and sediment transport patterns in the
local area.

Effects on indigenous biotic species probably result
from the disruption of the benthic habitat and the dis-
persal of sediments in the water and on the seafloor.

Underground Mining (Case V)

This hypothetical operation is concerned with the mining
of an underground coal deposit off the New England coast.

Eg~Dumnped barren ground -~Ore-bearing ground

HOverburden ' Bedrock

FIGURE 12. Sketch of start-up in new area.
(P.H.A. Zaalberg, Offshore In-Dredging in
Indonesia)

The deposit covers approximately 307 square kilometers
(120 sq miles) and underlies the seafloor by some 610
meters (2000 ft) in water depths of from 31-92 meters
(100-300 ft). The average distance from shore is 11 kilo-
meters (7 miles).

Delineation of the deposit, which was discovered by drill-
ing into a favorable geologic area, will take several years.
The number of holes required may vary according to the
information accumulated, but in this case it is assumed to
be 120. These will be drilled from platforms or drilling
vessels similar to those used in the oil industry. The
mining of this deposit, which contains a cumulative 9 meters
(30 ft) of high quality coal in three generally horizontal
seams, will be carried out by sinking twin shoreside shafts
and driving twin tunnels to the main coal bed. (Figure 13).
An artificial island will be constructed in a median area
of the leases for a ventilation and access shaft. The water
depth in the selected site is 37 meters (120 ft). The min-
ing system will incorporate a standard room and pillar ex-
traction method.

Investment costs for such an operation come to several
hundred million dollars. Potential environmental impacts
in the marine area will be confined to the exploratory
drilling operations and to the construction of the artifi-
cial island. The impacts of the drilling will be largely
confined to the drilli-ng period during the presence of
the platform. If the platform sits on the bottom there
will be a limited disturbance of the seafloor. if it is
anchored, minor disturbances due to the anchoring system
wil~l occur. The displacement of drill cuttings and

SECTION

Power

Sea Level r Artificial Island -. P

7 Miles Twin
Twin
Developmenet
Shafts

Werkin Ags , _ _ . o_.---...t--Coal Measure

PLAN

\' '< :. Power Plant

Twin Shafts
Artificial Island ' \
(1500' drain3500

Submerged
State Lands
OCS

Borrow Area

FIGURE 13. Section and plan sketches of coal
mining operation.

addition of drilling mud may leave a residual of up to 91
metric tons (100 tons) of inert granular material on the
seafloor around each hole. The island might require as
much as 12 million cubic meters (15 million cubic yds) of
fill, which would be sought from a nearby suitable marine
source. The impact of the island construction might be
greatest in the fill source area and would be similar to
a large scale sand and gravel operation as previously
described. Impacts due to the presence of the island
might include diverting the current flow, altering local
erosional/depositional patterns and influencing the avail-

able bio-habitats in the immediate area. Shoreside
impacts are not developed here, but would be similar to a
large underground coal mining operation. If the coal were
to be utilized for power plant feed, it could be crushed
and pipelined to any reasonable location inland.

Solution Mining (Case VI)

The hypothetical solution mining operation centers around
a massive high grade copper/nickel sulphide ore deposit
located at a depth of 920 meters (3000 ft) in intrusive
rocks, 48 kilometers (30 miles) offshore of the southeast
coast of Alaska. Water depths vary from 55 to 182 meters
(180 to 600 ft). Exploration of the deposit over the
past three years has been sufficient to delineate a 30 year
supply of ore [at a rate equivalent to the mining of five
million metric tons (5 million tons) of 1 percent sul-
phides per year by normal underground methods.] Controlled
fracturing of the ore body in place is accomplished by
drilling a pattern of 180 holes over an 8 square kilo-
meter (3 sq mile) area and initiating a series of controlled
blasts throughout the pattern, followed by hydraulic frac-
turing. The holes are drilled in similar fashion to those
required for oil and gas production. They are cased and
fitted with seafloor completion control systems. The depth
of the holes drilled is between 1820 and 2450 meters
(6000 and 8000 ft). Fracturing is confined to the loca-
tion of the sulphide ore body, contained between the
1520 and 2450 meter (5000 and 8000 ft) horizons. No
measurable ground movement is transmitted to the seafloor
by this operation. Extraction of the sulphides is
accomplished by pumping an acid solvent through the frac-
tured ore body and back to the plant on land, where the
metals are recovered from the solution. The major capital
works involved are the pumping station, the 48 kilometers
(30 mile) pipeline complex to and from the deposit, off-
shore facilities, the orebody injection control system,
and the hydrometallurgical plant. Both the pumping
station and the plant are located on shore and are served
by a limited capacity marine facility owned and operated
by the company. A small community of a few hundred people,
mostly employees, is nearby.

Throughput of the system is around 13 million liters
(3 million gals) per day. The materials cycled in the
system are water, acid, iron, and precipitate copper. The
active ingredients are recycled in the plant and the only
toxic wastes produced are in solid form. They are shipped
out for safe disposal at an approved site (probably on
land).

The cost of development for this operation, including some
$80 million for the plant, is $200 million to $400
million. Development drilling, pipeline installation, and
plant construction from concept to completion covers a
four to five year period. The in situ extractive system

PLAN

MeteIl.rgicel Plant

S.iphidOreBd

Drill Holes

5___ 000 It

Suiphide
Ore Body
If rc S- ed I

- 0001 fI

FIGURE 14. Plan and section sketches of in-situ

methods of mining.

4 4

established here has been well developed in similar opera-
tions on land.

Environmental impacts that might occur from this operation
may be surmised. During the development period, the im-
pact of drilling will be similar to that for any production
drilling program of this nature and will include the
possibilities of mud or fuel spillage, some seafloor dis-
turbance and deposition of materials from the hole.
Similarly, disturbances of the seafloor may be occasioned
during the installation of the pipelines and the injection
complex. These structures will project in most cases from
the seafloor but they can be buried or protected by
smooth surfaced housings. Possible impacts of the opera-
tions are due mostly to the chance of accidental spillage,
resulting from the fracture of the pipeline or injection
system by an earthquake or collision. The seafloor system,
which could drain in the event of such an accident at the
deepest well head, assuming 15-inch lines, will contain
around 17 million liters (4 million gals) of solution.
All toxic solutions within the plant are recycled, but the
disposal of toxic solid wastes from the shore plant was not
considered in this study.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SAFETY

The development of the outer continental shelf industry
comes at a time of increasing concern for environmental
quality. in response to this concern, United States
legislative mandates require that the environmental im-
pacts of major new public and private projects should be
assessed.

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA)'7 has
been the single most important instrument leading to, or
forcing, the acknowledgment for equal considerations of
environmental quality along with socio-economic need.

The principal goals of the process of environmental impact
assessments include:

1. Analysis of the adverse and beneficial, direct and
indirect, environmental impacts of a project;

2. Giving the public a voice in the decision-making
process;

3. Allowing environmental quality to be considered along
with economic and technological feasibility; and

4. Providing a stimulus to industry to conduct its
activities in an environmentally safe manner.

There is a need for a careful environmental assessment
of the new mining industry. Such an assessment is re-
quired by NEPA and subsequent implementation guidelines.

More importantly, a new industry is being developed in
an environment that is still poorly understood.

Besides the requirements of NEPA, there are important
reasons for considering environmental quality at the
beginning of marine mining operations--namely: to
allow an orderly development of the new industry while
protecting or enhancing environmental quality; to facili-
tate continuing multiple use of the outer continental
shelf; and to provide for industrial development in a
stable regulatory regime.

Thus, if it is in the national interest to undertake

heavy mineral mining on the outer continental shelf, it
is also in the same interest to develop orderly procedures
for the protection of the environment. These procedures
must become part of the regulatory mandate so that the scope
and the limitations are understood prior to the time of
initial lease agreements.

The rationale for this position lies in past experience.
Too often in the history of industrial society little or
no notice has been taken of existing environmental con-
ditions at the outset, or of subsequent alterations in
the environment until irreversible change or damage has
occurred.

In general, private enterprise potentially involved in
outer continental shelf mining is aware of the mandate for
protecting environmental quality and is ready to comply
with reasonable constraints that provide for protection of
proprietary technology and do not require monetary out-
lays so great that inadequate compensation for capital
and operation investments results.

State of Information

in order for environmental assessment to be completed
for mining the outer continental shelf, the first step
must be to characterize ambient conditions at the mining
site. Following this characterization, the specific
activities, including any discharges that may affect the
environment, must be considered. Using this information,
the environmental impact of an outer continental shelf
mining operation can be assessed.

The diversity of nearshore physical environments and
the nutrient input from land sources combine to produce,
on the shelf, the greatest biological diversity of any
area in the ocean. Knowledge of the existing physical,
chemical, and biological environmental conditions is most
extensive for the nearshore continental shelf margins.
But even that knowledge can be grossly inadequate, as has
been shown in a number of instances. For example, prior
to the Santa Barbara oil blowout in 1969, no published
biological survey had been done in that area since the

1956-1959 sampling by the Allan Hancock Foundation (of the
University of Southern California) for the California Water
Quality Control Board.18119 Hence, it was impossible to
document the impact of the spill on prior existing conditions
and compare the recovery with those conditions. All that
could be documented was the improvement (or recovery) that
followed the worst period of the blowout. This is not a
situation unique to Southern California, by any means.

As mentioned earlier, the first step in gathering informa-
tion is to turn to the available literature, seeking
available data and other information about the specific
area to be developed and its adjacent areas of influence.
The immensity of ocean areas, compared with the relatively
few environmental studies already existing, make published
sources a poor supplier of information in most instances.
Further, the limitations of data collected on worldwide
cruises are severe in terms of area covered, time spent
at individual stations, and collection methods.

In many instances, specialists were not available to
sort and study the vast amounts of data gathered, and
years passed before the results were published. Present-
day cruise collections are stockpiled in quantity at the
Smithsonian Sorting Center, awaiting funds and specialists
to be able to identify specimens and interpret data. No
doubt considerable environmental data exists as the unpub-
lished property of industrial concerns, but these are not
available as yet to the scientific community as a whole.

The output of recent worldwide studies pertaining to the
continental shelf is relevant. During the course of this
study a search of Biological Abstracts and Ocean Abstracts
for the past few years located approximately 200 titles.
Of these, about a third were biological, each concerning
mainly a single group of animals. The Foraminifera were
most prominent because of their application in locating
oil. Sedimentology and mineral resources dominated the
other citations; few classical oceanographic papers were
included.

A computer search keyed to outer continental shelf re-
sources was initiated through the National Technical In-
formation Service (NTIS). Again about 200 references were
abstracted. Many of these related to economic and legal
questions. Very few could qualify as assisting in a base-
line study of a proposed lease site or of a larger area.
This was by no means an exhaustive search of the literature,
but it seemed to give an overview.

The need for baseline oceanographic information follows
from the concept that the natural environment functions as
an ecosystem. Biological equilibrium does not truly exist
in the environment if very lengthy periods are involved,
but the natural system, in a shorter time span, will provide
for balanced feedback between inorganic and organic living
cycles. Although natural cycles may shift, as they do in
47

long term shifts in thermal regimes or in evolutionary
genetic drift, they remain fairly well stabilized overall.

Existing environmental knowledge of the outer continental
shelf is much more limited in scope than is that of the
inner shelf because of greater accessibility to the in-
shore region by smaller boats and the less rigorous demands
on sampling gear in shallower waters. In this context, it
is noted that the endurance and reliability of oceanographic
equipment is generally poor, and uniform calibration stan-
dards are lacking for the majority of oceanographic instru-
ments. 20

Geophysical and oceanographic data have been collected in
seas adjacent to the continental United States by a rela-'
tively few institutions and expeditions. In 1961 and 1963
the National oceanographic Data Center published listings
of 342 oceanographic vessels in operation throughout the
world .21 Of 160 U.S. vessels listed, 116 were large enough
to be equipped with oceanographic instruments. Educational
institutions operated 33 of these. In 1974, the University
National oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS) listed only
24 oceanographic vessels operated by universities.

There is a need to increase the support for oceanographic
research in the United States if outer continental shelf
resources are to be safely developed and managed. At pre-
sent, there is little federally sponsored research on the
outer continental shelf relevant to mining, though the Army
Corps of Engineers and the Office of Sea Grant support
modest programs.

The teaching of organismic biology has declined to the point
were many biology students never see whole animals and cannot
identify even common local organisms. Now, molecular biology
has captivated so many academic institutions that there are
relatively few experts who are competent to carry out base-
line studies and to evaluate the ecological system either
locally or worldwide. New approaches to teaching such work
are needed if baseline studies are to have any real value.
The fact that jobs are now available for competent organic
biologists has already given impetus to a return to teaching
about whole plants and animals.

Because published information regarding the outer
continental shelf environment is scarce, the existing
environmental conditions at a potential mining site
must be nearly always characterized through original
baseline surveys. However, the scope and extent of an
adequate baseline study has not been defined and accepted
as valid by the scientific community. Failure to compile
adequate baseline data prior to the installation of in-
dustrial facilities occurred most often in the years prior
to NEPA. It continues to occur in numerous instances
where lack of scientific judgment combines with poor fund-
ing and lack of time to produce superficial results.
Furthermore, regulatory agencies have been poorly staffed,

especially in view of the large number of impact reports
and statements now required, to give more than cursory
attention to the preparation and review of environmental
impact statements.

Thus, adequate baseline surveys must be defined. A base-
line should have at least quarterly samplings from a speci-
fied pattern of locations over at least one annual cycle.
In other words, baselines are both time-and location-
dependent.

Industrial organizations and public agencies must be willing
to provide adequate time lines and funds for a reasonable
survey and analysis. It is not enough to survey most Pacific
and Atlantic continental shelf areas a single time, especially
if the only convenient time for the agency is between October
and April. Finally, resource commitments, in terms of man-
power, shiptime, and funding, must be expanded to accomplish
this large task.

While knowledge of the ambient environment of the outer
continental shelf is severely limited, even less is known
of the mining activities that may produce changes in the
environment and the extent of those effects. while various
types of offshore mining exist in foreign countries, no
mining of the outer continental shelf has occurred to date
in the United States. Although certain parallels exist
between navigation channel dredging and outer continental
shelf mining of sand, gravel or phosphorite, there are many
differences. The physical and chemical properties and bio-
logical communities in nearshore waters are somewhat different
than are those on the outer continental shelf. Further,
sedimentary material nearshore frequently contains
contaminants generated during years of industrial
activity. Outer continental shelf mineral resources
and their associated sediments will probably contain
only natural levels of trace elements and other con-
taminants. Because of these limitations on knowledge,
the environmental impacts of outer continental shelf
mining are difficult to assess.

Planning Baseline and Monitoring Criteria

Details of parameters and techniques for measuring
environmental quality in regions of the outer con-
tinental shelf are not standardized at present because
past investigations have been carried out by different
institutions at different times and localities. Equip-
ment may be limited or prototype in nature rather than
standardized.

New efforts have been made recently by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental
Protection Agency and the Bureau of Land Management to
arrive at a consensus among the scientific community as
to what constitutes adequate scope and methodology for
these surveys. 22,23

4 9

Broadly categorized, these cover physical and chemical
characteristics of the water and sediment and the nature
of the benthic and pelagic community ecosystems. Frequency
of sampling in space and in time are often more difficult
problems on which to obtain a consensus. Biologists are
aware of the seasonality of biotas and many consider quar-
terly sampling as the absolute minimum for an adequate base-
line. Most are aware that longer-term shifts in water mass
and thermal patterns are not delineated by a one year sur-
vey. A case in point is the northward flow of the warm
Davidson undercurrent or counter-current along the southern
California coast which flows in the winter months. Normally,
it reaches only to about Point Conception, but in some years,
warm water fauna have reached northern California and Oregon
where they persisted for several seasons. Presence or ab-
sence of a given species in a limited survey area in
consecutive years might have led to the conclusion
that some localized impact was the cause of its disap-
pearance if the space and time of the survey had been
too limited.

Isaacs24 has pointed out that a survey of sediment layers
in the anaerobic basins off California showed that sar-
dines historically had perhaps a 40 year local population
cycle and probably had not in fact disappeared because of
over-fishing or pollution. Thus, a baseline cannot pro-
vide all the answers but can certainly serve as the stan-
dard for comparison when long-term monitoring is built into
the system.

Monitoring over a sufficient area during prototype leasing
and during operations should provide information on both
natural shifts and impact of operations.

Environmental Impact of Technology

There are two distinct categories of potential impacts
from outer continental shelf mining operations. The first
consists of turbidity and possible chemical shifts due to
the mechanical resuspension of sediments caused by the
method of gathering or draining the minerals. These
mechanical processes introduce no new or unnatural mole-
cules to the environment, but benthic organisms directly
beneath the tracked vehicles or suction devices are des-
troyed, and other nearby organisms may be silted over and
killed. Available data indicate that temporary turbidity
of adjacent waters or limited sedimentation has much less
impact on benthic organisms than was originally predicted.

Technology for processing minerals at sea is presently
limited, but such contingencies must be considered. For
example, any process that radically alters the pH or
dissolved-oxygen content of receiving waters will affect
biota in at least a limited area.

Natural oil can affect plant and animal life in some
cases as a study of oil seeps off Santa Barbara has
shown. Research on petroleum spills has demonstrated
that while naturally occurring crude oil contains toxic
and carcinogenic agents, it is a more dilute form than in
refined oil. Marine bacteria attack these toxic chemi-
cals.

Similarly, chemical wastes from mineral processing are
expected to have toxic effects. Environmental damage
may be prevented by experimental laboratory testing
during the design technology phases, which might be more
economical and effective than waiting for on-site moni-
toring to determine possible impacts.

Mining leases will need to carry stipulations regulating
any on-board processing that might be developed in the
future. It is recognized, what is more, that onshore
processing may have great environmental impact, and
eventually a choice may have to be made between the rela-
tive impacts on land or at sea. Potential onshore effects
of outer continental shelf development have been considered
in detail by the Council on Environmental Quality 25 and the
National Ocean Policy Study .26 These processes might be
more environmentally safe at sea, even if some adverse
effects occur there, than in the confines of inshore waters
or on land. However, some spills of toxic chemicals may
be less safe in the ocean than on land, because on land the
spill could be more easily contained. Some toxic chemicals
in trace quantities may be dangerous, and the ocean cir-
culation could cause toxic agents to spread out and damage
life in a large geographical area.

Bays, estuaries, and the inner continental shelf are
among the most fragile ecosystems in the world. Conflicting
demands for land use and the difficulty of adequately diluting
wastes on land or in semi-enclosed bodies of water tend to
emphasize this aspect.

Conversely, the deep ocean apparently does not involve
the diversity of environments in limited areas that are
characteristic of the inner continental shelf. The biota
are much more limited.27 -Variations in the outer conti-
nental shelf environment are not well known but seem to be
far less vulnerable to trauma than those in the inner
shelf areas.

REGULATIONS ANDl LEASING

The shared desire of environmental interest groups and the
industry is to have clearly defined environmental standards
set in advance of mining. While it is difficult to predict
the operating stipulations which may be written into a
federal lease or license, the environmental procedures
which might be followed in the orderly development of outer
continental shelf mining are described below.

When certain regulations are issued by a government agency,
NEPA requires that an environmental impact statement be
prepared to accompany them. In February, 1974, the Depart-
ment of the Interior issued Proposed Leasing Regulations
for outer continental shelf hard mineral resources, in
response to the increasing need for the resources, coupled
with growing industry interest in mining them. As
required by the National Environmental Policy Act, a draft
EIS was prepared to accompany the proposed regulations.28
This draft EIS is termed programmatic in that it considers
the environmental implications of adopting the regulations
rather than specific mining operations and areas. Should
the recommendations of this report be followed, a different
set of regulations would need to be issued. Specifically
the PaAel recommends that a licensing system be substituted
for a leasing system. Thus, the draft EIS would either
need to be rewritten or amended.

Finalization of licensing regulations and acceptance of the
final EIS will be followed by industrial prospecting
activities. Prospecting will identify deposits of potential
economic importance.

The first procedural req~uirement to further the objective
of environmental safety regulations would be to institute
baseline st-udie-s during the preliminary- prospecting phase.
The scope of the baseline investigations would be exten-
sive enough, and gather sufficient information, to permit
an analysis of the area as an ecosystem.

A second environmental assessment should occur when the
Department of the Interior has prepared a ten-year licen-
sing schedule. Regional programmatic statements will be
prepared, as detailed in the Regulations section of this
report.

A third and final EIS would be prepared at the licensing
stage for a specific area. An applicant for a production
license would have to submit a work program which would
include a list of the principal minerals to be found; the
preliminary plans for exploration and development along
with methods of mining and waste disposal, and transporta-
tion of the mineral product to shore; the possible impact
of the operation on the total environment; and the measures
to be used to minimize the environmental impact of the
proposed operation. Using this information, together with
their own independent analysis of the environmental impacts,
the Department of the interior would prepare and issue a
draft EIS.

Because a nominee would be required to submit the environ-
mental report described above, it is essential that environ-
mental baseline studies for the proposed area be initiated
during the exploration phase. While a portion of the base-
line survey costs must be borne by industry, the Department
of the Interior must also develop and fund an aggressive
program that will characterize baseline conditions. To
52

avoid duplication of effort, cooperative programs, guided by
an evaluative organization, should be established. The
character of the evaluative organization is recommended
below.

The production license Environmental Impact Statement will
address operational conditions described by the applicant.
This EIS will therefore be specific as to site and techno-
logy to be employed and should quantitatively describe
impacts. However, it appears that a detailed impact
assessment cannot be accomplished with the present data
base. Wh-ile the existing environment will be studied
prior to tract nomination, operational effects on the
environment will not be known.

It is therefore prudent that licenses for prototype mining
operations be authorized before full scale licensing
begins. Several prototype mining operations should be
authorized in sites representative of the outer continen-
tal shelf region with hard mineral potential. To gain a
maximum amount and variety of knowledge from these proto-
type operations, it would be wise to select the sites and
operational modes to represent the full spectrum of en-
vironmental impacts which will likely follow under full
scale licensing.

The environmental effects of the prototype operations must
be monitored thoroughly. The major environmental objec-
tives of prototype operations are to identify the environ-
mental effects of mining on the outer continental shelf
under actual operating conditions; to allow a small number
of mining operations to begin under supervised conditions
rather than allowing a larger number of less well control-
led operations before the environmental implications are
understood; to allow mining to take place for a specified
period of at least a year, so that long-term environmental
impacts may be weighed against short-term changes; and to
allow the mining industry to experiment with technologies
in order to minimize adverse environmental impacts.

When issued a license, the licensee will be required to
submit a mining plan to the Department of the Interior.
This plan must be responsive to stipulations placed on the
license by the federal government. Thus, the results of
monitored prototype operations would find direct and
immediate application. Regulatory agencies would be aware
of long-term adverse effects as well as feasible methods
and technologies available to mitigate them. Industry
would also know what stipulations it could expect, attendant
to accepting the lease.

At the early stages of full-scale industry, license
stipulations would probably include a monitoring program.
In areas where the substrate texture is important to the
ecosystem, as in spawning areas, restoration should be
required. Other stipulations may include seasonal opera-
ting restrictions, warranted by migration patterns of
53

sensitive species, or limits on the disposal rates of par-
ticulate wastes.

It is considered essential that a scientifically know-
ledgeable body, independent of a licensing agency and the
license holder, alike, be given the responsibility and
authority to evaluate the results of the environmental
baseline studies and to monitor outer continental shelf
mining operations. This committee should be appointed by
an independent advisory group. Their functions should
include supervision of proposed scopes of work, stipula-
tion of the level of effort required, evaluation of the
level of effort required, evaluation of the results of
baseline and monitoring studies, and specification of
modifications, additions, deletions and restorations for
mining operations. The committee should have adequate
staff and funding to provide a meaningful evaluation.

objectives and Content

in assessing the management and regulation of heavy minerals
mining on the outer continental shelf, the Panel accepted
the objectives laid down by the Department of the Interior.
These objectives are:

1. Orderly and timely resource development, with prevention
of waste in the extraction of mineral resources;

2. Protection of environmental quality and the achievement
of exemplary practices in mining on the outer continen-
tal shelf;

3. Return of fair resources value to the public; and

4. impartial application of laws, regulations, and orders
to operators .I
Three set of circumstances were considered by the Panel
in its deliberations:

1. Hard minerals mining under the ocean is an activity
for which there exists only a very limited experience
base.

2. Both the resource base and the environmental data base
necessary to formulate regulations are very limited.

3. Hard minerals mining under the oceans will take place
in areas where interested parties reflecting quite
different values will demand participation.

The achievement of the stated goals, under the circum-
stances identified above, requires government procedures
and management arrangements that provide decisions based
on uncertain data. These decisions must reflect the need
for accommodation and compromise among interest groups

with conflicting values and objectives. in summary,
governmental management must be responsive to a changing
and growing data base within a fluid political environment.

Relevance of oil and Gas Experience

it was the Panel's initial assumption that appropriate
management techniques could be obtained by extrapolating
from the nation's past experience with the development of
outer continental shelf oil and gas resources. Like oil
and gas, the major legislative basis for governmental
regulation of hard minerals mining is derived from the
outer Continental Shelf Lands Act and the NEPA Act of 1969.
Several Panel members, however, raised questions concerning
the similarities between offshore oil and gas development
and hard minerals development. After extensive review, the
Panel concluded that the differences between outer conti-
nental shelf oil and gas development and hard minerals
development made it impractical to extrapolate from one
regulatory system to the other. Two categories of concern
led to this conclusion.

1. Hard minerals mining systems may involve collection
of minerals by mining vessels by means of dredging
of commodities which range from unconsolidated
deposits such as surficial sand and gravel in shallow
water, to manganese nodules located in great depths.
Also, marine mining may eventually involve underground
deposits whose development will require construction
of fixed facilities and shaft sinking operations.

The range and vari-ety of activities was potentially so
great, and the necessary technology in such an early
stage of development that the oil and gas analogy was
not considered useful. in this connection, it should
be noted that the most advanced technology is at the
present time in deep ocean mining and not shallow,
near-shore mining. Unlike oil and gas, it is not at
all clear at the present time that the necessary
technology can evolve through a gradual movement of
operations from relatively shallow water into deep
parts of the ocean.

2. The social and political context in which hard minerals
mining will develop is distinctly different from that
in which oil and gas developed. on the one hand, there
is a growing perception that the nation and the world
may be facing a minerals shortage. A consequence of
this may be a desire for the United States to seek max-
imum self sufficiency in minerals resources should
foreign sources become less available. Quite the
opposite situation existed when the oil and gas manage-
ment system was developed. On the other hand, there is
a widely manifested concern that every reasonable effort
should be made to protect the environment. Responding
to this concern requires the development and clear

interpretation of reliable and convincing new environ-
mental and resource data. it also requires governmental
decision-making which generates public confidence, as a
result of open decision making based on publicly avail-
able data. The legislative history of NEPA suggests
that open information and open decision making were
primary objectives of the Act. in practice, NEPA places
responsibility on government for early notification to

interested groups of pending governmental actions
and provision of the data and rationale behind
decisions by- government. These provisions of NEPA
have added substantial responsibilities to the
government and industry, in their-mineral manage-
ment program.

In no area are the problems posed for oil and gas more
graphically illustrated than for those surrounding govern-
ment access to, and handling of, resource data and inter-
pretations developed and paid for by the industry.
Critics of the government's resource management programs
charge that industry has better resource information than
the government manager and regulator. This has led to
recent proposals by the government that industry provide
all pertinent oil and gas data. Quite understandably
industry resists these pressures, since these data repre-
sent potential competitive advantages in bonus or royalty
bidding for leases, now required in the Outer Continental
Shelf Lands Act.

Should government obtain such data under present proce-
dures, the basic social issue is not resolved since
government would apparently view it as proprietary; that
is, the data could not be made public or included in
environmental impact statements even if deemed appropriate.
Not only would the company, at its own expense, have to
provide data to the resource owner (government) , but it
would also have to provide data to its competitors, or
other potential bidders on leases.

In summary, the Panel concluded that credible government
resource management requires that government have the best
available resource information, and that the public
recognize that to be the case. only public availability of
resource data can achieve that objective. This objective
cannot be achieved under the current system that governs
oil and gas resources.

General Findings

Given the facts that both technology associated with
marine mining and the social circumstances under which it
will develop differ significantly from the oil and gas
case, the Panel concluded that it could not design a
regulatory system for mining that would achieve the

nation's objectives within the constraints of the existing
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act.

The central deficiency in the present Act is its require-
ment that leases on hard mineral resources be allocated on
the basis of competitive bids that utilize bonus payments
as the single variable.

The Panel's recommendations then propose making some
clear-cut and potentially controversial tradeoffs.

Specifically, the Panel recommends an approach to govern-
ment regulation and management of outer continental shelf
mining that exchanges early financial advantage, and
administratively clean allocation of mining leases by
sealed bids based on royalties, for the early and complete
information advantages of a licensing system that uses
work program proposals as a basis for allocation.

Where mineral development is judged to be in the national
interest, the Panel believes that industry capital should
be invested in exploration and development activities, not
in bonus money. The other side of this is that government
be put in a position to provide the best informed and most
imaginative management of mineral resources. The Panel has
purposefully tried to provide an arrangement under which
there is no significant economic advantage to a company in
retaining information as a proprietary item.

To ensure maximum social responsibility on the part of the
involved government agency and the licensee, the Panel
recommendations rely heavily on the requirements of NEPA.

Although the requirements under Section 102 of NEPA are
still being defi-ned in the courts, it is the intent of
these interpretations, as well as the Council on Environ-
mental Quality's guidelines, that NEPArs requirement be
interpreted very broadly. Specifically, environmental
impacts go considerably beyond impacts on the immediate
physical and biological environment. Court opinions and
CEQ guidelines have indicated that, to the extent
possible, the full range of impacts on the social and
economic system must be assessed. A major purpose of the
environmental impact statement is to ensure provision of
broad-based information to policy makers and the public.
The impact statement process reflects a growing recogni-
tion of the complexity of our society and the irreversi-
bility of many of its decisions. The impact statement
should be managed as a purposeful effort to provide a
process for responding to conflicting values in advance of
major federal actions, rather than after the fact.

Successful political accommodation requires that the
impact statement process respond to several needs. These
are as follows:

1. A substantial lead time is necessary. That is,
probable federal actions need to be identified far
in advance of those actions being taken.

2. The government needs to insure maximum public
access to the decision-making process for all
interested parties. it should be recognized that
consumer and environmental interest groups are
frequently only alerted to actions at a relatively
late stage. Thus their response is frequently to
attempt to block the action, in part, because these
parties are both uninformed and faced with very short
time constraints, but further because their interests
have not been adequately addressed in the past.

3. The government should be responsible for providing all
interested parti-es with maximum available information.
This information should be made available as early as
possible, be comprehensive, and include interpretation.

Public interest groups frequently have limited
resources and inadequate interpretation capabilities.
Vigorous efforts by government to provide compre-hen-
sive information will-mitigate a repeated concern
that selective releas-e of information is being used
to support the developer's position. The impact
statement process- should represent a system that
provides- "no surprise" for any of the parties.

4. Effective response to conflicting interests requires
developing comprehensive planning along the coast-
line and on the outer continental shelf. A major
problem with present outer continental shelf manage-
ment is that each decision, each lease sale, each
proposal to take action, is essentially a de novo
proceeding. It starts from ground 'zero" i~ndFeuires
fighting all the same issues over again. Mining may
impact on the coastline in some way. Coastlines have
been the predominate concern of those who can be
expected to oppose ocean mining. Only with theI
development of coastal zone planning can the same
highly charged political fights be avoided in the
future.

It is the Panel's belief that only a system which responds
to diverse concerns on a repeated basis can hope to meet
the needs of a rapidly changing world. it has attempted
to ensure a responsive technology by recommending perfor-
mance standards that assume the use of the best commercially
available technology. The objective of the system is to
ensure that industry and the federal government make con-
tinued efforts to improve the technology, both for purposes
of economic return and protection of the environment, and
for other uses of the ocean.

The intent of the regulations that the Panel recommends in
the following section is to create a system of procedures
that will make the management of these resources responsive
to a broad set of public concerns.

Requlatorv Principles CoverincT Hard Minerals Mininq on

the Outer Continental Shelf

I . Prospecting (Government Permit Requ~ired)

Prospecting, using such methods as magnetic, electric,
gravimetric, and acoustic surveys, as well as bottom-
sampling and shallow caring, should be open to any United
States citizen or company (or any citizen or company of a
nation with which a reciprocity agreement has been signed)
upon issuance of a permit by the Department of the Interior.
(This does not apply to academic research organizations
which are exempt from these provisions.) Parties wishing
to carry out such prospecting should submit a proposed
prospecting plan to the Department of the Interior. The
plan should describe the type of prospecting anticipated,
and the general area to be surveyed. it should include
specific assurances that such exploration would neither
damage the environment nor conflict in any significant way
with other users or interests in the area. In those cases
where some conflict exists, the conflict should be
described for purposes of informed Government decision-
making. Approval of prospecting should not carry proprie-
tary rights to any minerals discovered. The Department of
the Interior should be obligated to respond to a request
for a prospecting permit within a reasonable time period;
a nonresponse within a given time period should be defined
as a formal approval to proceed.

Rationale: The Panel's recommendation reflects two
c~onclus-ions:

It is to society's advantage to encourage the most exten-
sive and complete gathering of information on mineral
resources. Although during the prospecting stage these
data remain the property of the prospector, they are
necessary before a company will proceed to the detailed
exploration stage outlined in Principle IV.

The Panel found no reason to believe that adverse impacts
will be associated with normal prospecting techniques. The
assumption is that issuance of prospecting permits will
generally be pro forma, however, a formal permit is recom-
mended as a filter -to catchk those rare instances where
something out of the ordinary might be associated with
prospecting. The Panel believes that inaction should not
be, an option allowed the government resource manager as a
means of blocking prospecting. Thus, the recommendation
is that a long delay should be formally construed as
approval.

II. Licensing Schedules

The Department of the Interior should work toward early
issuance of 10-year licensing schedules.

Rationale: The Panel believes that a 10-year licensing
schedule is an essential framework around which both
federal and state planning must take place. This schedule
should reflect areas nominated by companies based on
prospecting data, and nominations by the government based
on its own data. Mining activities must be integrated
into coastal zone planning and such planning takes time.
Further, it provides a time frame for planning by the
mining industry.

Such a schedule has several other benefits. It serves as
an early warning device for parties representing all
vested interests. This is especially true for state
agencies and local interest groups who may not normally
monitor activities in Washington, D.C. Finally, inclusion
of a new region on the 10-year schedule, which would be
updated yearly, would act as the trigger for the prepara-
tion of a regional programmatic impact statement as covered
under Principle III.

In summary, the 10-year license schedule is the first step
in insuring that the long lead-times are provided. The
Panel believes this to be necessary to achieve the politi-
cal accommodation and data collection necessary for stable
mining activity.

III. Regional Programmatic Statements

With the inclusion of any coastal region on the 10-year
licensing shcedule, the Department of the Interior, in
close cooperation with other concerned agencies, should
prepare a programmatic impact statement. These regional
programmatic statements should be general development
plans for the region, including mineral, land-use and
environmental concerns. The purpose should be to define
the role and the relationship of hard minerals operations
to the overall uses of that region. These statements
should be subsidiary to the more general statements
issued in advance of mining regulations and should be a
vehicle for updating or modifying that general statement.
Regional programmatic statements should provide early
access both to information and policy-making for all
interested parties, and therefore, be an early step in the
process of political accommodation. All programmatic
statements should have a clear-cut obligation for regional
public hearings. The programmatic impact statement should
specifically include an assessment of federal management
capabilities with regard to these minerals.

An ad hoc committee should be constituted by the Council on
Environmental Quality to review programmatic impact state-

ments. The committee should represent a broad range of
interests and expertise. A report of the review should be
provided to the public.

Rationale: The Panel has placed great importance on the
regional programmatic statement. First, it offers a way
to escape reassessing the total world resource picture in
each license impact statement. Second, the Panel believes
that mining must be assessed in terms of its general
regional impact and viewed as a regional activity. Third,
these statements provide a vehicle for early involvement
of all interested parties in the decision-making process.
This latter includes two elements: identification of the
various concerns reflected by different interests, and the
collection of any appropriate information those interests
may have. Regional impact statements also serve as a way
to inform and provide appropriate information to interested
parties. Fourth, the regional impact statements, by
triggering early contacts, assure the concerned parties
that they are not involved in an after-the-fact process
of justifying a decision. Fifth, the statements can be
used as inputs to coastal zone planning. This contributes
to state planning agency needs and assures that the mining
activities will have appropriate shore-line support faci-
lities built into coastal zone plans, thereby reducing the
chance of controversy over such facilities at the point
they are needed. Finally, these statements provide a
vehicle for early coordination among the multiple federal
agencies likely to be concerned with the mining activities.
A particular benefit in this connection should be to
assist those agencies responsible for collecting environ-
mental data in planning their research program.

A central problem in the past has been the lack of capabi-
lity of the staff of the federal agency to manage resource
activities. For this reason the Panel believes the impact
statement should identify the prospective personnel needs.
The best regulations and procedures have little public
credibility if there is no professional staff to carry
them out.

The Panel has recommended a review of the regional state-
ments by an ad hoc committee constituted by CEQ. That
recommendation reflects the Panel's conclusion that the
agency preparing the statement would benefit from a review
by a group of expert consultants selected by a government
body reflecting environmental interests. Such a review
would add to the public credibility of the decision-making
process.

IV. Detailed Exploration Licensing

A. Non-Competitive Licensing

In the absence of competing requests and/or known marine
mineral deposits, and upon submission of a detailed ex-
ploration program, the government should issue an explora-

tion license. This license should allow for significant
sampling, deep coring, mapping, and assessment of the tenor
of the ore. The license application should require
detailed descriptions of the activities to be carried out
as well as the specific location as defined by coordinates.
Upon completion of this detailed exploration, all data and
interpretations should be made available to the Department
of the Interior. Normally, these data would be made
available as part of the application for a production
license, both data and interpretations will be made
publicly available.

Issuance of a license to carry out detailed exploration
should carry with it a preference right to production of
any minerals discovered. Exercise of this right is
described under Principle VI.

B. Competitive Licensing

Where competition exists for detailed exploration licenses,
and where the Department of the Interior judges competing
exploration plans to be technically sound and the explorers
capable of carrying them out, exploration licenses should
either be given to all parties or a cooperative exploration
program developed in conjunction with the Department of the
Interior. Exploration licenses issued in this competitive
situation should require all of the elements included in
the previous section, except that they should carry no pre-
ference right to minerals discovered.

Rationale: The Panel believes that the detailed exploration
license is the vehicle whereby the government and the public
gain access to detailed resource information. The tracts
covered under this license should be large enough to en-
courage rapid data acquisition (the definition of large will
vary with the character of the mineral sought). The general
areas where licenses would be available for detailed explora-
tion should have been laid out in the license schedule.

The federal government should establish fixed time intervals
within which exploration must be completed. At the end of
this fixed time interval the holder or holders of the explora-
tion licenses must apply for a production license, or indi-
cate that they do not wish to apply for one. In either case,
the data and its interpretation must be provided to the
government. Only those companies having exploration
licenses may apply for a production license. The Panel
proposes this approach as a means of arriving at a balance
between the government's need for information and the need
to insure that company-collected information will not be
used by other companies unwilling to undertake detailed
exploration.

The royalty rate to be charged should be publicly estab-
lished at the time of the announcement of the availability
of exploratory licenses. Procedures for setting this rate
are recommended in Principle VI-D.
62

V. License Impact Statement

Based on the programmatic statement for the region, the
Department of the Interior should prepare a license impact
statement to be available at least six months prior to
production licensing and three months prior to a public
hearing. This impact statement will be triggered by the
application for a production license. The impact statement
should include inputs from the Department of Commerce and
other appropriate federal agencies. This statement should
he subsidiary to the regional programmatic statement, and be
focused on the local area to be licensed. It should address
the broad issues raised in the programmatic statement, but
concentrate on their immediate or local impacts. It should
not repeat material addressing general world or national
mineral needs, nor should it address world or national
social or economic implications. The one exception is, if
the information in the programmatic statement has become
obsolete, these specific license impact statements may be
used to amend the programmatic statements. The license
impact statement should specifically include an assessment
of federal management capabilities with regard to these
minerals.

Rationale: The data collected by the companies operating
under the exploration license, the application for a produc-
tion license, and the environmental data collected by the
government should be used to inform those preparing the im-
pact statement. In cases where there are competing
applications for a production li-cense, as covered in the
next section, the government will have to make its selec-
tion of a licensee in advance of the preparation of the
license impact statement. The license impact statement
may cover several licenses in the same area, but each
separate mining operation should be assessed.

VI. Production License

It should be government policy to license mineral produc-
ti-on, as opposed to leasing areas which contains minerals.
A major reason for this language change is to distinguish
hard minerals regulation from oil and gas regulation.

A. Alternative Licensing Procedures

Production licenses should be given on the basis of work
programs submitted by the companies. Such programs should
designate the extent of the mining activities to which the
company commits itself over a given period of time and in
a given area. Additionally, such work programs should also
include plans to minimize the negative impact of mining
activities on other interests in the area.

1. Non-competitive Licensing

In the absence of competing companies, or where one party
has preference rights as described in Principle IV, licenses

should be given on a non-competitive basis once the
Department of the Interior has judged the proposed work
program to be satisfactory.

2. Competitive Licensing in Areas with Known
Marine Mining Deposits

Where more than one party desires a license to work a
mineral deposit, the license should be given on the basis
of competition, based on proposed work programs. Prefer-
ence should be given to the applicant proposing the most
vigorous, and at the same time, the most careful work
program. Competition should not be judged on the basis of
either bonus bids or royalty rates.

Rationale: A major reason for the Panel's preference for
work program competition is to insure rapid development
of the resources. Failure to meet the work program, in
the absence of compelling reasons, should result in with-
drawal of the production license.

In both competitive and non-competitive situations, the
government should insure that an adequate work program has
been proposed.

B. Relinquishment

At fixed time intervals, substantial percentages of the
land covered in the initial license should revert to the
federal government. The objective is to encourage poten-
tial miners to carry out extensive and early exploration.
The major relinquishment should be triggered at the point
where the first commercial production begins.

Rationale: The Panel's preference for a relinquishment
process is to insure that detailed exploration will occur
throughout the tract. It assumes the mining company will
choose the richest and most profitable ore for development
and relinquish those portions of the tract that fall in
other categories. This publicly available information may
indicate relinquished ore resources that are attractive to
other mining concerns.

C. Information and Data

After issuing a production license, government should have
access to all technical data and interpretations held by
the licensee. The federal government should have as one
of its objectives the accumulation of as complete a data
base on subsea minerals as possible. In this connection,
government should be encouraged to accelerate its own data
collection.

D. Payment

As noted earlier, licenses should not be allocated on the
basis of bonus bids nor royalty bids. Rather, royalty rates

should be established by the federal government based on the
costs and benefits to the licensee. Royalty rates should
be low when the risks are high and vice versa. That is,
as technology and procedures are developed which bring
increasing stability to mining operations, royalty rates
should be increased. To assist in setting royalty rates,
the Department of the Interior should, at fixed intervals,
establish ad hoc commissions to assess the adequacy of
the royalt-es being charged mining companies. These
commissions should be made up of diverse and financially
disinterested persons.

Rationale: The procedures for determining fair return to
the government assume that the royalty rate will not change
for the duration of the license. The Panel generally used
10-year license periods as its reference point with renewal
available. Renewal, however, should be at the royalty
rate current at the renewal time. The precise license time
period would doubtless need to reflect the character of the
operations associated with each specific ore.

E. Liability

The licensee should be fully and absolutely liable for the
consequences of his activities. If necessary, the federal
government should provide a liability insurance program for
claims of an extraordinary kind, i.e., such as that cover-
ing nuclear installations.

Rationale: It is the Panel's view that other parties should
not suffer uncompensated losses resulting from marine mining,
regardless of the existence of negligence or lack of it by
the miner. At the same time companies cannot be held liable
for activities that may be beyond their capability to obtain
insurance. If marine mining is in the public interest, then
it seems reasonable that the federal government cover extra-
ordinary claims.

VII. Regulatory Management

Except where prohibited by existing legislation, responsibi-
lity for the management and regulation of offshore mining
should be concentrated in the Department of the Interior.

The Department should be clearly and publicly responsible
for the safety of marine mining operations, and should
have sufficient authority and capability to carry out this
responsibility. The Department should be assisted by
other federal agencies as required.

Rationale: The Panel's recommendation reflects a desire
to concentrate responsibility and thereby escape, to the
extent possible, the debilitating consequences of having
to deal with a multitude of government agencies.

VIII. Standards Specifications

The United States government should support the establish-
ment of an independent standard setting organization, using
Det norske Veritas as a model. This organization, located
in Norway and serving Norway, Finland, and Sweden, is
supported by an extensive and skilled research staff which
has distinguished itself by timely study of potential mar-
ine problems. The Panel cites this organization as a model
for improvement of our domestic standard setting. This
standard-setting organization should provide the technolo-
gical backup for the United States regulation of marine
mining.

Rationale: The Panel's recommendation reflects the view that
no industry carrying on activities vital to the public in-
terest should be allowed to set its own technical standards
for equipment. Adequacy of standards should be determined
by specialists without direct economic interest in the acti-
vity. This is doubly the case if it is important that those
standards be credible with the public. The Panel also be-
lieves that such a standard-setting organization can provide
a continuing inducement to the industry to improve its
technology.

IX. Safety and Environmental Protection

All safety and environmental protection technology used in
marine mining operations should meet the "best available"
standard.

Rationale: The Panel means by "best available" the best
commercially available. Such a standard insures that
equipment manufacturers have a ready market for improved
safety and environmental technology. Under these circum-
stances, there is reasonable assurance of a continuing
motive for technology improvement over time.

X. Restoration

Each production license shall specify the nature and ex-
tent to which a mine must be restored. Assuming that
mining licenses will not be issued for more than 10-year
periods, each license renewal will specifically review and,
if appropriate, modify the terms of the required restora-
tion. The miner should be required to provide an appro-
priate bond, or contribute to an escrow account sufficient
to ensure restoration in the absence of the miner's
ability to meet the terms of the license. The special
emphasis on continuing review of restoration requirements
reflects the present limited data and knowledge in this
area.

Rationale: The Panel can find no conclusive evidence of a
need for specifying restoration activities for marine
mining operations at this time. The above recommendation
is included because, while land based mining experience is

not directly related to marine mining, the obvious degra-
dation of the terrestial environment where no conditions
were attached for restoration, suggests that the need and
procedures for restoration be reassessed continuously.

15 Shepard, Francis P. 1972. Submarine Geology,
(3rd ed.), New York: Harper & Row.

16 Fairbridge, R.W. 1966. Encyclopedia of Oceano-
graphy, New York: Van Nostrand.

17 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. Public
Law 91-190; 83 Stat. 852:42 U.S. Code 4331 et seq.

is Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern
California. 1965. An Oceanographic and Biological
Survey of the Southern California Mainland Shelf,
California Water Quality Control Board Pub. 27,
Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 (1971).

Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern
California. 1971. Biological and Oceanographical
Survey of the Santa Barbara Channel Oil Spill:
Volume 1, Biology and Bacteriology, Isdale Straughan,
(ed.).

20 U.S., Department of Commerce. 1974. Ocean
Instrumentation, Washington, D.C.: Department
of Commerce.
21
U.S., Department of the Navy. 1961, 1963. Oceanographic
Vessels of the World, NODC General Series Pub. G-2,
2 Vols, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office.
22
U.S., Department of Commerce. 1974. Report of the
NOAA Scientific and Technical Committee on Marine
Environmental Assessment, Washington, D.C.: Depart-
ment of Commerce-Office of Marine Resources.

23 U.S., Department of Commerce.1972. Marine Pollution
Monitoring: Strategies for a National Program,
Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce.

24 Isaacs, John D. 1974. A review of the marine biology
of the Southern California offshore region. Talk
presented during the Conference on Recommendations
for Baseline Research in Southern California relative
to Offshore Resource Development, Long Beach, California,
December 5-7, 1974. Available from the Southern
California Academy of Sciences.
25
Council on Environmental Quality. 1974. OCS Oil
and Gas - An Environmental Assessment, 5 Vols.,
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

26 U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Commerce. 1974.
Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Development
and the Coastal Zone, 93d Cong., 2d session,
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

2 Roels, O.A., et al. 1973. The Environmental Impact
of Deep-Sea Mining, NOAA Technical Report ERL 290
0Dll, Boulder: Department of Commerce.

28 U.S., Department of the Interior. 1974. Draft
Environmental Statement: Proposed Outer Continental
Shelf Hard Mineral Mining, Operating and Leasing
Regulations, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Land
Management.

CHAPTER FOUR

DEEP-OCEAN MINING

CHARACTERLSTICS

The deep seabed beyond the continental shelf is charac-
terized by three general topographies~

� ocean basins, having an average depth of about
three to six kilometers;

� seafloor mountains, ridges and fracture lines,
representing bold relief above the ocean basins; and

� trench systems, representing bold relief below the
ocean basins.

Of these categories, only the ocean basins are of immediate
concern to proposed mining in the deep ocean.

The principal deposits under consideration are the ferro-
manganese nodules, which contain manganese, copper, cobalt
and nickel in commercially valuable quantities. It is
possible that other deposits, such as phosphorites,
ferromanganese crusts and metal-rich deep ocean muds may
be exploited in the future. Certainly, much of the capa-
bility developed in ferromanganese nodule mining will
contribute to making other deep-ocean mining operations
economically feasible.

The existence of manganese nodules has been known for some
time. The British Challenger Expedition (1870-73) brought
back samples of them. However, it was not until the past
two decades that the quality and global extent of this
material was established. During this same period techno-
logy became available that could make possible commercial
exploitation of these deposits. But political questions
(i.e., the emerging Law of the Sea) complicated the picture
from the point of view of private interests which sought
to gain and maintain the right to conduct deep-ocean
mining on the international seabed.

TECHNOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

It should be noted during the following review that the
problems discussed are not unique to deep-ocean mining.
Further this section of the report implies a certain
amount of engineering optimism. However, this optimistic
attitude should be considered valid only through the
developmental phase of ocean mining. The Panel believes

that long-term, day-to-day reliable operations for produc-
ing ore on a 300-day per year basis are several years away.

During the workshop it was noted that the section on tech-
nology of the report is weak as there was little or no
discussion of processing. The Panel acknowledges this
weakness, and attributes it to the proprietary nature of
processing and the lack of details available for publica-
tion. The several approaches under consideration by
industry at this time are certain to change and offer a
relatively broad spectrum. Rather than to publish genera-
lities or make gross estimates, the Panel prefers to omit
discussion of processing. In any case during the initial
years, processing will be accomplished on land, and the
subject thus beyond the scope of this report.

Deep-ocean mining on a production scale is a massive
operation. Figure 15 shows a system composed of several
elements separated by thousands of miles requiring move-
ment of ore, people and supplies by land, sea and air.
Such a system may require as much as 20 years to bring on
stream and an investment of between $200-$750 million
(1973 dollars). 29

Figure 16 shows three elements of the mining equipment, and
the options that exist to form a mining system. All of
these options are under consideration by the United States
and foreign firms now active in development of deep-ocean
mining systems. Figure 17 shows the typical time-phasing of
activity from initiation of research to actual operations.

Commercial mining of mineral resources from the ocean
floor involves three basic tasks: ore body location and
delineation; mining; and transport of the ore to shore.
Each requires a somewhat different technology base and
approach. Geological and geophysical exploration and
mining operations are similar in many respects, in that
some form of surface vessel is required to support each,
and both require some form of submerged equipment with
suitable navigation of the surface vessel.

Exploration

Published data identifying ferromanganese. nodule deposits
has been developed for the most part from studies spon-
sored by federal grants. The data that have received the
greatest worldwide distribution are contained in a series
of reports sponsored by the National Science Foundation
(International Decade of Ocean Exploration) and prepared
by Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory of Columbia
University. 30

Unpublished proprietary data, similar to that in the Lamont-
Doherty reports, exist in private industry. Combined, these
data provide evidence that valuable mineral deposits exist
in several areas of the world oceans. it appears that the

PRODUCTS

� Nickel San rancisco
Copper
* Cobalt
Manganese sing
/ / \ Ptocessing
~ Plant
PROCESSING PLANT os eles

� 5000 tons per day /
95% waste e /

ORE TRANSPORT / Or5
'~~/ ~Traqsport
� Barges / /
Ships / 20�

* CREW AND SPARE PARTS DEEP OCEAN MININ9/AREA

Air
Sh�ip H Chii_ Crew Rotation /
Spire Parts inig System
� MINING SYSTEM

* Surface Platform
Nodule Lift
* Bottom Miner 1800 1200

FIGURE 15. Deep ocean mining system schematic.

BOTTOM MINER LIFT SYSTEMS SURFACE PLATFORMS

Towed Air Lift Semi-Submersible

~.rT1-L7 C~- ',L7 7-4 -7

Self-Propelled Hydraulic Ship Shaped Hull

CLB ( / CLB Hopper
BATCH

FIGURE 16. Deep-ocean mining approach and options.

OCEAN TECHNOLOGY

PROCESSING RESEARCH

SITE SURVEYS
/
ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS -_ _ _ UEDATE) - - - -

SYSTEM DESIGN

SYSTEM PROCUREMENT TERATION

ASSEMBLY&
TEST
SEA TRIALS
OPERATIONS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
------- YEARS ------
FIGURE 17. Deep-ocean mining, time phasing.

richest deposits are found in the Pacific Ocean basin in
water depths of 4300 to 4900 meters (14,000 to 16,000 ft). 31

The Panel members from industry are in general agreement
that the nodules with high content of nickel, copper and
cobalt are found in the siliceous (radiolarian) ooze and
red clay areas of the Pacific Ocean, which are located in
the area of 0� -20 �north latitude and 120�- 180� west longi-
tude. 32 It appears that the siliceous ooze host soils pro-
duce nodules of approximately twice the nickel and copper con-
tent as those found in red clay host soils, 33 but these con-
clusions remain to be established by actual mining operations.

It should be noted here that the sea conditions in the areas
of initial mining interest are generally calm, with sea and
swells seldom combining to form wave heights greater than
1.5 meters (5 ft) except in rare extreme storm conditions.
However, wave-induced forces are a concern to the miner
since these forces directly affect the mining system.
For this reason a national weather model is recommended
for the areas of mining interest. Since these areas are
off the shipping lanes, there is only a limited amount of
weather data.

To justify the high initial investment required for ocean
mining development, industry must mine the nodules of
highest assay first (nickel, cobalt and copper); hence,
the areas of initial interest will likely be the siliceous-
ooze zones.

Nodule populations are variable and found in a patch-like
distribution of irregular geometry. The size of patches
sufficiently high in nodule density concentrations and/or

assay, vary from several hundred meters to kilometers in
maximum dimension. The initial task of ocean mining
activities will be exploration on a scale adequate to
locate and define deposits of grade and quantity that will
support long-term mining projects. These deposits must be
located on terrain capable of being effectively traversed
by presently contemplated mining devices.

Physical Description of Nodules

Table 6 describes the characteristics of the northeast
Pacific Ocean nodules. The nodules in any given common
area are fairly consistent in size and mineral content.
While these criteria may vary on the order of 25 percent,
important ocean mining parameters such as average daily
production are predictable enough to allow orderly fore-
casts of business economics. Data reduction of the Lamont-
Doherty Geological Observatory 34 and unpublished reports

Table 6

North East Pacific Ocean

Ferromanganese Nodule Characteristics

Depth of Water Column 3600-5400 meters
(12,000-18,000 ft)
Host Soil' Siliceous ooze

Size Range 2.5-23cm (1.0-9.0 in.)
greatest dimension

Specific Gravity 1.9-2.4 (drip-dry)

Mn, Ni, Cu, and Co Content' 30% Mn, 1.2% Ni, 1.0% Cu,
0.25% Co
Hardness Range from 3 (calcite to
4 (fluorite) on the
mohs scratch scale
Shape Predominantly oblate
spheroid
Moisture Content Approximately 30%

'Values are averaged values from nodules located in sili-
ceous ooze. Red clay host soils have Ni, Cu, and Co
values that are approximately one-half that of the
siliceous ooze host soils.

have shown that the average density of nodules range from
0.25 to 2.0g/cm2 (0.5 to 4.0 lbs/sq. ft). A value of
lg/cm2 (2.0 lb/ft2) is a suitable engineering value for use
in mining rate computations. The size of the nodule patch,
will vary from location to location; however, when large
nodules such as 23 cm (9.0 in.) in diameter are found, the
population is usually small. When small nodules 14 cm
(1.5 in. diam)] are found, the population is usually
large. Each has the potential yield of the same tonnage
when computed on a grams per square centimeter of ocean
floor.

Exploration techniques used by government and industry
researchers thus far have been adequate to identify
grossly the potential value of ferromanganese nodules
found in the oceans. Methods used to date include
dredges, core samplers, free fall/free surface ascent
samplers, prototype test mining equipment, photography,
closed circuit television, and acoustic sensors. Each
method has been designed to meet the research objectives
of the user. The exploration techniques used thus far
may not be adequate for the future demands of full-scale
mining operations. In situ, real-time, nodule analysis is
certainly a desirable capability for future mining explora-
tion phases.

Mining Operations

There were over 30 United States patents and a number of
foreign patents granted as of 1972 for deep-ocean mining
equipment intended for gathering or handling ferromanga-
nese nodules. At least four major United States industrial
firms, as well as several foreign groups, are known to be
active in development of full-scale ocean mining equipment
at this time. Each inventor and industrial firm has
actively pursued its unique method for mining nodules and
several are certain to function at a level of performance
which satisfies the owner.

There are basically two types of dredges, mechanical and
hydraulic. The mechanical dredge digs and lifts the material
in a container. The hydraulic dredge lifts the material as a
slurry in a contained stream of upward-moving liquid. The
two systems are competitive in many applications, and the
choice of method will depend on the application. Up to now,
most deep water dredges have been designed around hydraulic
systems with variations in the means of inducing slurry
flow in the pipe, in the design of the nodule-gathering
device, and in the means of imparting horizontal motion
to the system on the seabed.

The continuous bucket line dredge is a mechanical system.
A long continuous loop of rope is hung over a platform
floating on the surface and the bottom end of the loop is
allowed to touch the seafloor; attached to the rope at
intervals are ordinary drag buckets. When the loop is

caused to rotate, the buckets in their passage will exca-
vate material from the seafloor and carry it to the surface.
If the platform on which the system is mounted moves in a
direction at right angles to the plane of the loop, then a
path equal in width to the length of the platform should be
swept across the ocean floor. This simple principle is
illustrated in Figure 18.

In a hydraulic system, vertical slurry flow may be induced
(1) by moving the slurry directly through pumps installed
in the pipeline, or (2) by the injection of air into the
line. The latter method lowers the density of the slurry
causing an upward flow due to the pressure difference of
the fluids inside and outside the pipe. Slurry flow may
also be induced by injection of a high velocity stream of
fluid into the line in the direction of flow. Other
variations are possible, but are not important at this time.
Variations in the design of nodule-gathering devices are
mainly tied to the method of propulsion of the system. Two
basic methods are the towed system, in which the gathering
device is towed by the surface platform to which it is
attached, and the self-propelled system, in which the
gathering device is activated independently of the surface
platform. The self-propelled system requires a power source
at the seafloor and is necessarily much more complex in
design.

This report will not assess these proposed designs since
full-scale operations have not been attempted with the equip-
ment. There are several technological problems that must be
solved that are common to the success of a given design.
These are listed in Table 7.

Mining Equipment and Seabed Interface During and After
Ore Removal

The concentration and collection of ferromanganese nodules
from the seabed with a minimum related pickup of sediment
at high mining rates 15,000 metric tons (5500 tons) per
day] is the long-range goal of all deep-ocean mining system
designers.

Many methods are proposed to meet this objective; however
each must successfully solve the same problems in order to
become economically competitive. These problems will be
described in the following sections.

1. Nodule Pickup and Seabed Soil (Mud) Removal

The nodule pickup action, of necessity, disturbs the sea-
bed. 35 Suction heads, dredges, buckets, tines, rakes, roll-
ers, and all other pickup mechanisms require some form of
scraping, lifting, plucking, pushing, or pulling action on
the nodule in order to remove, or transport the soil from
the area of mining into the mining machinery as clods of
soil, particles in the water column, or soil adhering to

75 h p 75hp --

Unloaded

T Tr'~
12.0 )0 ' 1T\

\i|Loaded . Drg

"..._ _I II_/
-1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-i

oo100 F/M
-~-- ~--~ -- -~ -- .X

Control
~~ Thrusters --Z/// //

I 5 k Current

FIGURE 18. Principal of continuous bucket-line dredging system:
I. A long, continuous loop is hung over the platform; II. attached
to the loop are ordinary drag buckets; III. as the ship moves side-
ways, a path is swept across the seafloor. (Y. Masuda, M. Cruickshank,
and J. Mero, Continuous Bucket Line Dredging at 12,000 Feet)

TABLE 7. Typical mining subsystem.

Risk
Element High Medium Low Remarks
Surface ship X State of the art supports
Pipe & pipe handling X Fatigue life in sea water is not predictable
Mining equipment X Lack of soil mechanics data presents a risk-
use of submersible technology solves the
remainder
System dynamics X Depends upon accurate modeling of complex
hydrodynamic forces in order to predict
Nodule lift X Depends upon method
Mud removal X Techniques are developed
Soil mechanics X Verification of theories and literature remain
to be tested by experience
Fatigue life of materials X Entire engineering discipline is under
development
Structures, buoyancy, hydraulics, X Use existing deep submergence or offshore
electrical, electronics, sensors, etc. petroleum technology

the nodules. Many of the pickup devices perform a strip-
ping action which intentionally removes a swath of soil
the width of the mining head and to a depth of several inches.
This stripping action is designed to intersect the nodules,
which are buried about half way in the soil.

Various methods of soil removal from the nodules will be
tested at sea; some candidate techniques are certain to be
mechanical shakers, cyclones, water jetting, ultrasonic
cleaners, and combinations of each. 3~' The system design
should accomplish removal at the seafloor. The net
resuit, if successful, will be a sediment plume in and
around the mining head, which will settle out in the
general area of the seabed that has been mined. The amount
of particle scatter will depend upon the design of the
mining head, its velocity, Stokes Law and prevailing ocean
currents.

An example of the maximum amount of seabed soil that may be
disturbed as a result of ocean mining can be computed using
the following assumptions:

Nodule Concentration 1 kg/m2(2 lbs/ft2)

Mining Rate (nodules) 4900 metric tons/day
(5400 tons/day)

Mining Swath 15 meters (50 ft)

Depth of Swath 10 cm (4 in.)

Velocity 38 cm/sec (1.25 ft/sec.)

On a daily basis this gives a soil (including nodules)
pickup of 4.9x104 cubic meters (1.7x10 cubic ft), along
a 30 kilometers (19 miles) swath of 15 meters (50 ftyin
width. For a 300-day year, this equates to 14.7x10 cubic

meters of soil disturbance. This yearly rate is approxi-
mately equal to slumping due to turbidity currents at the
mouth of the worldrs large rivers when the river is flood-
ing and wave stirring is at a maximum. For example, the
Mississippi River Delta sediment transfer is estimated to
be 2x108 cubic meters per year. 37

The self-propelled mining equipment has an interaction with
the seabed to a much greater extent than towed equipment.
The self-propelled approach suggests some form of mobility
and trafficability that in turn must consider wheels,
tracks, or other forms of propulsion. This disturbance
of the seabed is probably more uniform with a self-
propelled approach than a towed dredge, but is also more
likely to disturb a greater volume of seabed when both are
operating properly; this is due primarily to swath width
and burial depth of the propulsion equipment. Unlike
nodule pickup and mud removal, the mobility function will
compress the seabed along with stirring up particles.

Using the assumptions previously given, i.e., that of a
4600 metric tons (5000 tons) per day unit traveling 30 km
(19 miles) per day, and further assuming a track width on
each side of 180 centimeters (72 in.), and a burial depth
of 92 centimeters (36 in.), the amount of disturbed soil per
day is 1.9x105 cubic meters (7x106 cubic ft) or 5.7x107
cubic meters (2.1x109 cubic ft) per year for a 300-day year.

2. Navigation and Obstacle Avoidance

The mining equipment traversing the seabed must either be
towed or self-propelled. Some examples of towed systems are
the continuous bucket ladder, hydraulic dredge heads, and
air lift dredge heads. These systems have the advantage of
simplicity and the attendant reliability that simplicity
offers. A self-propelled mining system offers the potential
of greater efficiency when operating in rich ore (nodule)
deposits.

Each approach must consider undersea navigation of the
bottom-located mining equipment and geographic navigation
of the surface ship. Satellite and inertial guidance
navigational aids are available commercially with
accuracies adequate for ocean mining surface ships. The
problem is compounded because the mining equipment must
be controlled with respect to the surface ship.

The navigation function for self-propelled mining equip-
ment also produces a relatively small amount of heat,
light and sound in the immediate area of mining. The heat
is generated by friction of rotating machinery and lights
for viewing through closed circuit television cameras, each
with two lamps rated at 400 watts each and producing 126
lumens per watt (10 candlepower/watt at centerbeam). The
noise level could approach 100 db/ubar at one yard at 10/kHz
with a roll-off of 6 db/octave. These energies will be
79

absorbed by the huge mass of seawater with essentially no
effect.

3. Hardware and Technology

Within the limits discussed in this report, hardware and
technology may exist to support successful development of a
deep ocean manganese nodule mining system. Certain indus-
tries have paved the way for deep-ocean mining. For
example, offshore petroleum technology development in the
1960-74 period, and the deep submergence programs of manned
and unmanned submersibles have provided the ocean mining
system designer many "off-the-shelf" solutions to design
problems. The offshore oil industry generally provides
heavy duty, rugged, highly reliable hardware. The concern
of the designer is assured production with long-term dura-
bility and reliability. Deep submergence system engineers
cannot always utilize these solutions due to an overriding
demand for design solutions which minimize weight; thus,
large amounts of resources are devoted to qualification
testing and use of exotic materials to arrive at the re-
quired safety and reliability at minimum weight.

The Panel believes that the nation has the capability to
design, fabricate, test and operate deep-ocean mining
systems successfully; however, several years of experience
must be obtained and only a limited number of firms
currently have. experienced teams encompassing the neces-
sary professional and technical disciplines for developing
prototype deep ocean hardware systems. There are also a
limited number of United States contractors with enough
experience in deep submergence programs to build a major
deep-ocean mining system with their own internal resources.

A review of the status of hardware was made of offshore
petroleum and deep submergence industries, using an "off-
the-shelf' criterion for availability of components.
Table 2 was organized to demonstrate that the state of
technology is sound. it is generally agreed by the Panel
that while capability exists to design and build deep-ocean
mining systems, several areas of technology need improve-
ment. The principal areas requiring improvement fall into
three categories crossing several engineering disciplines:

� structural materials;
� component and system reliability; and
� sensor technology.

4. Structural Materials

One of the basic problems that faces an ocean mining system
designer is the depth of the water column that separates the
surface vessel from the ocean floor. This in turn presents
several problems for the structural engineer in designing
the strength member required for raising or lowering the
mining equipment. The typical solution is usually found to

TABLE 8. Components for deepsea mining.

Buoyancy Material

Cost/Buoyancy
Material $/lb Remarks
Fluids 0.50 Hydrocarbons such as JP-4, pentane, hexane, etc.,
offer least cost solution but are not safe or efficient
Spheres
Steel 3.00-5.00 Become negatively buoyant at - 15,000'
Aluminum 10.00-15.00 Become negatively buoyant at = 18,000'
Glass 7.00-12.00 Will withstand 10,000 psi (22,400')
Syntactic foam
37 P.C.F. for 9,000 psi 13.5 Single size glass bubble, low cost resin
34 P.C.F. for 13,500 psi 66.0 Binary bubbles, high strength resin

Structural Materials

Cost-$S/lb
in Usable Form
Material (December 1973) Remarks
Steels
COR 10/A-36 0.40 Used where strength requirements are minimum
4340 1.00 Good choice for pipe material-must quench and temper
HY-80, 100, 140 1.75 U.S. Navy choice for pressure vessels
Marage 2.25 200 ksi strength with no quench required
Aluminum
6061 1.15 Weldable, aging to T-6 condition. Offers Ftl of 36 ksi
5083 1.25 Best from corrosion standpoint
Titanium
CP 7.00 Titanium does not corrode in sea water, best choice for long
6AL-4V 10.00 life applications-initial cost is high and difficult to machine
and weld
Plastics
GRP 3.00-5.00 Plastics offer good weight to strength ratios once submerged,
lack of marine fouling leads to low maintenance

Hydraulic Components

Item Performance Available Remarks
Valves Off-the-shelf or custom designed Closed loop, pressure compensated, oil components
are S.O.T.A.; salt water components must be
custom if not supported by offshore petroleum
Pipe and fittings Up to 10,000 psig, up to 4" I.D. Has not been a problem until exceeding 4" I.D.
Flex hose 3000 psig up to 2" I.D. High pressure, large diameter hose requires
development
Motors & pumps 150 S.H.P. can be obtained Vane, turbine, and radial piston motors;gear,
piston, and vane pumps are available off-the-
shelf. Oil fluid medium is recommended
Filters 5-10 for oil Has not been a problem suppliers can provide to
150 mesh for sea water your requirements

TABLE 8 (Continued)
Sensors

Item Performance Available Remarks
Imaging
CC TV .75'-100' in clear water Low light level cameras are available (silicon inten-
sified target tubes) if used with thallium iodide
lamps maximum range results
Navigation
Acoustics Several miles (10 KHz) Requires narrow bandwidth channels at low
100' (500 KHz) frequency
Obstacle avoidance
Pulse sensors 4�, 150' range (650 KHz) Requires highly skilled operators in order to inte-
CTFM 2', 1500 yards (80 KHz) grate typical displays in real time

Electrical Power Equipment

Item Performance Available Remarks
Batteries (secondary) Any reasonable requirements Several types exist; lead-acid, nickel-iron, nickel-
can be met cadmium, silver-zinc, silver-cadmium. Lead-acid
is lowest cost approach
Switch gear Low reliability Arc across contacts change with pressure-environ-
mental testing recommended
Connectors and penetrators Man rated quality 37 and 55 pin available with mil-spec standards, all
leak paths double sealed
Cable Any reasonable requirements Coaxial, twisted shielded pairs, 1/0 power conduc-
can be met tor and be made in combinations up to 3" O.D.
with armoring to support 16,000' length in water

Electronics

State-of-the-art for ocean mining is the same as other industries
Electronic equipment is located within pressure vessels
Access for test and troubleshooting becomes limited
Heat transfer can become a problem
Certain equipment can be housed in pressure compensated containers, if they can operate in oil
Command and control data link is the most complex electronic design task in an ocean mining system

be the use of pipe, if large factors of safety are required,
and wire rope, if operating depths are shallow. The choice
of the usage of pipe presents problems such as the presence
of localized high stresses at the pipe connections, which
may be threaded joints. For economical operation, with
reasonable trip times, the pipe handling system can become
automated or semi-automated. This is one risk area where
existing offshore petroleum techniques can be applied.

Because of the implicit complexity, high strength and low
density structural materials are in demand. When cost is
considered, selection of a pipe string material usually ends
with a steel alloy. The engineer can appreciate the need
for rigorous trade-off studies supporting proper selec-
tion of the pipe string material. The steel producers in

this country can currently supply a pipe string at the
reasonable costs [$4.40/kg ($2.0/lb)], and in cross
sections large enough to permit mining equipment weights
in excess of 230,000 kg (500,000 lbs) to be raised and
lowered to and from depths of 6000 meters (20,000 ft),
with adequate provision for dynamic load amplification and
safety factors.

Materials selected for the mining equipment used in the sea-
floor must conform to a different set of criteria from that
of the wire rope or pipe briefly discussed above. Corro-
sion-resistant materials, or those with a low maintenance
cost will probably be preferred for this equipment. The use
of dissimilar metals, which can introduce corrosion, must be
avoided in designing the equipment, or at least be recognized
and counteracted with preventative repair/replacement main-
tenance procedures.

Three areas of materials technology require a considerable
amount of improvement for marine mining applications:

1. fatigue life of materials in seawater;

2. fracture mechanics of materials exposed to sea-
water and other corrosive media at high stress
levels; and

3. residual stresses due to welding.

At first these might appear to be similar problems, but
examined carefully they demand different design solutions.
This not only affects ocean mining engineers, but all pro-
duct and research engineers designing underwater equipment
as well.

The first area of technological weakness--fatigue life of
materials exposed to seawater--requires a testing program
that provides published materials characterization data for
structural designers. This testing program should evaluate
the following parameters: material; mean stress level;
stress ratio; cycles to failure for various stress
ratios; values in air compared to values in seawater;
weldments; forgings; heat treatment; grain direction; and
fracture toughness. The permutations available from such
a mix of parameters can easily become a test program re-
quiring in excess of 105 samples; however, if the candidate
materials are limited to the few in general use for struc-
tural applications today, the test program becomes one of
manageable proportions. The following sample structural
materials list is suggested as reasonable.

* Steel - A-36 and/or A-242,

4330 (100-150 KSi Ft. )

4340 (100-150 KSi Ft),
y
83

*T-l C90-100 KSi F t.
y
*Titanium - 6AL-4V

*Aluminum - 5083, 6061

The second technology weakness--fracture mechanics of
materials exposed to seawater--requires emphasis at the
research level. Fatigue life and fracture mechanics of
materials in seawater do interact. The cause of structural
failure of a material under tensile stress is understood to
be growth of a flaw of subcritical size that causes failure
of the structural member in the presence of continued
stress. The entire engineering discipline of fracture
mechanics has just recently been receiving a level of re-
search effort equal to its importance; however, the develop-
ment of data for the ocean environment has been given low
priority.

The final weak area, residual stresses and corrosion resis-
tance modification due to welding, also requires emohasis
at the research level. A generally acceptable method does
not exist for predicting or measuring residual stresses due
to welding techniques, even in the simple joints of butt,
lap, or tee configurations, since complex and indeter-
minate structures are common weldments in ocean mining
structures.

Looking at the first example discussed in this section,
selection of pipe string materials for ocean mining
systems, with relation to fatigue life and fracture
mechanics data, one can see the limited options available
to a cost-conscious engineering decision-maker. Without
the availability of fatigue life and fracture mechanics
threshold data for accept/reject criteria, the structural
engineer must make selections for marine materials with-
out benefit of a sound scientific foundation, resulting
in heavy and costlier solutions. Lack of data in weld-
ments further compounds the problem.

5. Component and System Reliability

Experience in operating complex machinery in the deep
ocean is limited, and successful long-term operations are
few in number when the task must consider simultaneous
operation of a surface ship, suspension strength member,
and some form of towed or self-propelled mining head.
The restricted availability of proven hardware at the com-
ponent level can only add to the risk of deep-ocean
equipment operations. Deep-ocean mining when compared to
that of such deep-ocean activities such as submersible
rescue or search missions, contains the need for a unique
reliability criterion; that of long duty cycles and
continuous daily operation without the need for raising
the mining head from the seabed to the surface.

One approach to solving the system design problem and
providing the high reliability necessary for deep-ocean
mining equipment has been to use several techniques, each
having been proven successful in systems other than mining.

Such components as electrical, electronic, and hydraulic
parts are protected from saltwater and hydrostatic pressure
if housed within a pressure-proof container which provides
a dry gas/component interface. If a pressure-compensated
system is used, the electrical and moving parts are exposed
to a low pressure over ambient by a compensated, closed
loop, inert fluid system. Typically, electronic com-
ponents such as printed circuit boards, solid-state relays,
integrated circuits, switches and terminal boards are
located within pressure vessels. For deep-ocean applica-
tions, the pressure vessel is usually spherical in con-
figuration, flanged at the equator for access to the
equipment. The flanged joint and wire penetrations will
usually be sealed with "0" rings. The net result is
containment of the equipment within an atmospheric
pressure environment. This is usually the environment of
the original component design; thus, in the pressure vessel
we have simulated the original intent and maintained the
initially achieved reliability.

Pressure compensation physically isolates components from
seawater but exposes them to ambient pressure plus a small
over pressure 1215-354 g/cm2 (3-5 lbs/in2)] within the
compensated loop. The overpressure is constant, indepen-
dent of depth, and usually mechanized by bladders located
below the compensated equipment (head), or spring loaded
containers located at the same depth or above the equip-
ment to be compensated. Thus the need for high pressure
seals is eliminated. Such a design provides for a fluid
(usually oil) medium which bathes the equipment in an
environment conducive to high reliability.

Conservative design often results from a prediction of poor
reliability performance of a material or component. Several
reasons force conservative design. Structurally, in order
to provide for low-stress levels, the hydraulic designer
consistently uses a "fail-safe" approach to valve selection,
and electrical power designers fuse circuits to the point
where one questions the reliability of the fuses. Conser-
vatism to a level consistent with cost is good engineering
practice. The designer can prevent an "overkill" approach
if allowed a rigorous simulation or test program that
increases his confidence in the prototype equipment and
therefore the equipment to be used. Testing to simulate
the deep ocean environment can become costly if hydrostatic
pressure, ambient temperature, and data recording equipment
are necessary. However, the alternative of testing at
sea is more costly and time-consuming. To some extent,
the future is limited by the lack of components
specifically designed for use in ocean mining systems.

6. Sensors

Operation of mining equipment in the deep-ocean environ-
ment imposes the functional requirements which employ
various sensors. Underwater navigation is necessary for
positioning the mining equipment with respect to a
surface support ship, ocean bottom landmarks, or geograph-
ical coordinates as required by the mining operation. An
imaging capability is needed for high-resolution examina-
tion of the ocean bottom, observation of mining machinery
operation, and detection of obstacles in the case of
mobile machinery. In addition, some operations will also
require environmental sensors.

The underwater navigation function generally requires data
with low information content, i.e., underwater range and
bearing at relatively low update rates. This implies
systems sensors that transfer data in narrow bandwidth
channels amenable to low frequencies. These characteris-
tics are associated with acoustic systems that operate at
frequencies in the kilo-hertz range. The navigation func-
tion is performed exclusively by acoustic devices, not only
because acoustic frequencies are suitable for this function,
but also because the ranges achievable in the ocean medium
are orders of magnitude greater at the lower f requencies.
Achievable ranges vary from several kilometers for low
frequency (less- than 10 kHz) range measuring devices used
f or navigation, to less than 30 meters (100 feet) for
relatively high frequency (500 Hz), relatively high resolu-
tion(20 beam width), pseudo-imaging devices used for land-
mark recognition and obstacle avoidance.

The imaging function requires data with high information
content; for example, images containing a large number of
points at different levels of intensity. This implies a
wide bandwidth, high frequency system such as those of
optical systems which operate at frequencies in the mega-
hertz range. Imaging functions are performed primarily
by optical systems, except for the, overlap in the observa-
tion of large-, far-field objects where the limited
resolution of acoustic systems- is offset by the limited
range of optical systems (whiich is less- than 30 meters
(100 ft) for clear water, degrading rapidly if mud and
silt are present).

Specific requirements, as well as methods and equipment
available to sati-sfy these requirements, are important for
both navigation and sensor applications. The navigation
function invariably requires the location of one point or
object with respect to a local reference. if the geogra-
phical location of the local reference is known from a
prior survey, then the geographical location of the unknown
can be determined. Various functional schemes are avail-
able including transmission of pulse and receipt of
pulse returned by a transponder; and/or receipt of pulse
from a beacon and comparison with time references. Range
is obtained by measuring pulse travel time, while bearing

is generally obtained by triangulation using ranging data
to two or more points. Devices are available that measure
bearing directly by use of a dipole receiving array and
measurement of the phase difference at the receivers.
Current state-of-the-art equipment provides the following
capabilities:

Range: Several kilometers with
the use of transponders.

Range Accuracy: 30-300 centimeters (1-10
ft), depending on range.

Direct Bearing Measure-
ments 5 degrees

Acoustic imaging, in contrast to navigation, strains the
capability of state-of-the-art equipment. The high
resolution required for imaging demands narrow beams, which
require high frequencies, which in turn limit the range. In
addition, minimum pulse length limits the achievable range
resolution. For example, the absorption of 100 Hz is only
1.09x10-l db/km 10-4 db/k yd), whereas at 10 kHz the
absorption is approximately 6.52xlO- db/km (6x10' db/k
ydl. Narrow beam transducers generally form a fan-shaped
beam which must be received on an orthogonally-placed
hydrophone array to achieve a real resolution. State-of-
the-art pulse transducers can generate a fan beam one-
quarter degree wide at a frequency of 80 kHz with a range
from 430 to 1300 meters (500 to 1500 yes), depending on
target strength. Continuous transmission frequency
modulated (CTFM) systems are generally more complex and
costly than pulse systems. If the object to be observed
is located on or near the bottom, the problem is further
complicated by the need to distinguish returns from the
object from bottom reverberations.

True high-resolution imaging can only be performed optically.
State-of-the-art television systems provide a resolu-
tion of 0.1 degree. The major obstacle in using televi-
sion is the limited range caused by the scattering and
absorption of light. It is therefore advisable to use
a light source that suffers the least absorption. The
selection of a light source must also take into account
the frequency sensitivity of the camera to be used. The
most sensitive low light cameras available use Silicon
Intensified Target (SIT) tubes. The optimum frequency
light that minimizes absorption and maximizes camera
sensitivity is produced by thallium iodide lamps at a wave-
length of approximately 4500 angstroms. The combination
of SIT cameras and thallium iodide lamps operating in clear
water, such as is found in the undisturbed deep-ocean,
provide viewing ranges of up to 56 meters (185 ft).

There is need for sensor improvements in the following
areas:
87

*Long Range Viewing

Viewing of the subsea terrain is currently limited by the
range capability of high resolution optical sensors or the
resolution of long range acoustic sensors. The range of
optical sensors is limited by the scattering and absorption
of light in the medium. Practical methods of overcoming
this limitation by polarization, gated receiver and
light sources, the use of coherent light, or other means,
are needed. Resolution of acoustic sensors could be
improved by use of high frequencies and provision of the
additional power required, or by other techniques including_
non-linear acoustics and acoustic holography now in early
development.

InT-Situ Analysis of Minerals

Manganese nodules vary considerably in the content of the
metals of primary interest, i.e., copper, nickel and cobalt.
It would be desirable to obtain an assay without the time-
consuming operation of bringing the nodules to the surface.
An analysis system to rapidly perform assays on the ocean
bottom is desirable.

Additional Systematic Factors of Environmental Interest

A mining rate of 5000 metric tons (5500 tons) per day
appears to be a reasonable model for analysis of future
ocean mining systems in terms of realistic economies and
in the determination of loads placed upon the environment by
ocean miners. This rate is equal to the handling of 1.5 x
106 metric tons (1.64 x 106 tons) of raw material (nodules)
per 300-day year. The material must be moved from the sea-
floor, up the nodule transfer conduit, stowed aboard ship,
ultimately transported to shore, off loaded from a barge
(or the mining ship) and land-transported to a shore-based
processing plant. Since the nodules as recovered from the
ocean floor are 30 percent entrained water (by weight),
there may be reduced rates for handling as drying occurs,
this lower limit being 4.5 x lO' metric tons (4.9 x 105
tons) per year of the nodules that are completely dried.
The amount of water transported from the ocean floor for a
hydraulic lift system can be computed using the rule of
thumb of a maximum of 20 percent solids concentration
or four times the nodule tonnage rate which is 6 x 106 metric
tons (6.5 x 106 tons) of seawater per 300-day year. Excess
water will probably be discharged at depths of 300 to 900
meters (1000 to 3000 ft) below the surface.

ENVIRONM~ENTAL PROTECTION AND SAFETY

There is no doubt that environmental considerations and
arguments, with or without sound technical basis, will
be used in international legal, political and economic
deliberations concerning exploitation of the mineral

resources of the seafloor, as has already been the case
in the United Nations Seabed Committee.

Several mining tests have already been completed and many
more are in preparation. The prospect of imminent and
extensive deep-ocean mining requires serious consideration
of the environmental impact of this activity, since it
could affect the benthic and pelagic environments. It is
essential that the environmental implications of manganese-
nodule mining from the deep-ocean floor be thoroughly under-
stood, evaluated and documented before such mining is
attempted on a large scale.

The proposed mining of manganese nodules from the deep-
ocean floor has triggered a unique collaboration in the
United States among the government, mining industry,
academic institutions, and public interest groups to deter-
mine the environmental impact of the proposed mining
operations before their start. This is in great contrast
to other important industrial developments, where environ-
mental concerns have usually arisen after damage to the
environment--sometimes serious-- has taken place. By taking
preventive action, it should be possible to reduce greatly or
avert completely environmental hazards due to mining opera-
tions. Collaboration between government, industry and
academia to ensure safe deep-ocean mining methods could also
lead to the development of mining techniques which would not
have degrading environmental effects.

The emphasis of this discussion is the impact of manganese-
nodule mining on the marine environment. The metallurgical
operations to extract valuable metals such as copper,
nickel and cobalt from manganese nodules, at sea, should
be roughly comparable in their environmental effects to
land-based operations of a similar nature. However, if
the ore processing takes place at sea, special precau-
tions for the discharge of waste materials will be
necessary. Since secondary land use (including land-based
processing plants and tailings disposal sites), and
social and demographic patterns affected by marine mining
or ore processing, are not exclusive problems of deep-
ocean mining, these considerations are outside the scope
of this report. Similarly, the environmental impacts of
alternative means of obtaining metal ores and the environ-
mental analysis of the utilization of minerals obtained
from the marine environment are not considered here.

Deposits of manganese nodules of current commercial
interest lie mainly on top of the sediments covering the
ocean bottom; therefore, no deep penetration of the sedi-
ments will be required to retrieve them. Manganese nodules
are rare in areas where there is rapid sedimentation--e.g.,
on those parts of the seafloor underlying areas of high
biological productivity in the water column, which give
rise to rapid sedimentation of biogenic oozes. The areas
to be mined will be limited, therefore, by the distribu-
tion of manganese nodules on the ocean floor and by
89

technical and economic factors governing their retrieval
from the depths. Our discussion, therefore, considers only
relatively flat, sediment-covered parts of the ocean floor
with a high density of manganese nodules on, or very close
to, the surface of the sediment.

Environmental Impacts of Deep-Ocean Mining

Mining Methods

In a mining operation, the manganese nodules are collected
from the ocean floor, usually from great depths, and trans-
ported through the water column to a surface vessel. The
collection of manganese nodules will result in the removal
and redistribution of sediments and benthic organisms on
the ocean floor. In all mining operations, it is likely
that there will be considerable resuspension of sedimentary
materials in the near-bottom waters. All of the different
techniques under consideration for nodule mining will try
to avoid, as much as possible, the retrieval of sediments
with the nodules. The continuous bucket line system
tested in the Pacific in 1971 and 1972, used buckets of
40 cm 16 in.) deep with a maximum penetration into the
sediment of about 20 cm (8 in.); however, penetration prob-
ably will be much less in practice. 38 Other systems pro-
pose to utilize bottom-gathering devices connected by
hydraulic or airlift pumping systems to transport the
nodules to the surface through a pipeline. 39 All of
these devices have components that make contact with the
ocean floor in separating the nodules from the surrounding
sediment. First separation is achieved by a chute with
water jets, heavy spring-rake tines, a radial tooth roller,
harrow blades and water jets, or spaced comb teeth. Many
of the concepts employ adjustable collecting elements so
that changes can be made during the. mining operation to
accomodate variations in the nodule deposit and sediment
characteristics. A second important feature of all of the
collecting devices is a controlled digging depth into the
ocean floor, since interest is usually centered within the
upper few inches of the sediment.

A quantitative estimate of sediment resuspension by towed
suction dredge heads and by self-propelled mining equip-
ment, operating on the seafloor, are given in the Tech-
nology section of this chapter.

Effects of Mininq on the Seafloor and Near-Bottom Wat-r
Mass

It is in the interest of a mining operation to separate
the nodules from the sediment to the greatest extent
possible on the ocean floor, and to disturb the sediment
as little as possible, compatible with efficient collection
of the nodules. However, it is equally obvious that signi-
ficant disturbance of the sediment and the sessile benthic
organisms, that cannot escape the oncoming dredge, will

occur. A cloud of sediment will undoubtedly be disturbed
in the near-bottom water layers. The distribution and
resedimentation of the disturbed particles will obviously
be governed by their density and other sedimentation
characteristics as well as by the near-bottom currents.
This resuspension of sedimentary materials will influence
the near-bottom water mass, and certain areas of the ocean
floor from which sediments have been removed, and other
areas where redeposition of the sediment will occur.

The near-bottom water mass may retain in solution certain
compounds leached from the sediment or from the intersti-
tial water. For instance, in manganese nodule areas, it
is conceivable that the trace-metal content of the near-
bottom water could be increased by the resuspension of
sediment. This enrichment of the near-bottom water in
certain compounds may have an effect on organisms living
in the deep ocean near the seafloor. On the whole,
important effects seem unlikely both in view of the rela-
tively low density of the near-bottom prowlers and the
fact that the sedimentary material was previously settled
on the seafloor as a result of natural sedimentation
processes. It has been argued that the redistribution of
sediment on the ocean floor resulting from natural
phenomena exceeds by many orders of magnitude on a world-
wide scale, any disturbance caused by all the dredges
ever likely to be utilized in deep-ocean mining. 40 It
remains equally clear, however, that local disturbance of
sediment may have a certain impact on the deep-ocean fauna
and flora. This is particularly the case for sessile
animals which may have a very slow reproductive cycle. On
the other hand, it is unlikely that any mining operation
will cover 100% of a given area of the seafloor. Seafloor
bands of adequate width with full consideration given to
possible sediment drift, could thus be left undisturbed in
a mined area to enable the re-establishment of deep-ocean
fauna and flora in those areas where the dredge heads have
destroyed it. This process of recolonization might be
quite rapid on a geological timescale. It is believed that
the biomass of the sessile fauna on the deep-ocean floor is
generally very low, particularly in manganese-nodule areas
and, therefore, the quantitative impact of deep-ocean
mining on the total marine flora and fauna of the oceans
should be quite small.

Another possible result of the disturbance of the sedi-
ments and their resuspension in the water column is the
transplantation of spores or other dormant or live forms
of micro-organisms from one area, where they rest in the
sediment, to another, transported by water currents in
the overlying water masses after resuspension from the
dredged sediments. Some of these species are dormant in
the sediments but may revive when discharged into other
environments. Initial observations on some dormant
organisms occurring in deep-ocean sediments have been
described. 41
91

Effect of Mining on the Water Column

The effect of sediment and near-bottom water discharged at
the surface has been measured or forecast. 42 To date,
there is no information concerning the rate of sedimenta-
tion of discharged particulate matter. There is, however,
information concerning the influence of deep-ocean sedi-
ment on the productivity of water in the euphotic zone.
The influence of dissolved nutrients from interstitial
water in nodules, or from near-bottom water, on the chem-
ical composition of the overlying water column can be
calculated from the rate of mixing and the fate of near-
bottom water at the time of discharge, as well as by the
salinity and temperature of the receiving water mass.
The volumes of near-bottom water required to lift the
nodules from the bottom to the surface in hydraulic or air
lift-pump mining systems are given in the Technology sec-
tion of this chapter.

From the incomplete results of published work to date, it
appears that the environmental effect of mining operations;
the vertical transport of manganese nodules, sediment, and
near-bottom water to the surface; and sediment discharge of
the surface or at intermediate levels in the water column,
may be small. 43 It should be stressed, however, that the
environmental impacts of the resuspension and resedimenta-
tion of stirred up and discharged sediment have not been
measured at this time.

The processing and extractive metallurgy of manganese
nodules at sea, and the discharge of waste materials result-
ing from this processing, could be dangerous to the environ-
ment unless adequate precautions are taken. However,
most major concerns involved in the development of man-
ganese nodules have determined that, at least for first-
generation plants, economical processing can only be
accomplished ashore. 4 4 The principal reasons for this
are that the transportation costs of materials for proces-
sing will be equal to, or greater than, the cost of trans-
port of nodules, and problems of waste disposal and
environmental protection will be much greater at sea than
on land. However, should all processing take place at sea,
the care taken in waste disposal resulting from metallur-
gical processes should be, at the very least, equal to
that of land-based operations of a similar nature.

REGULATIONS AND LEASING

Introduction

The philosophy presented in the introduction of the sec-
tion on the regulations for the outer continental shelf
is carried forward in this section. Although those
engaged in developing this new resource opportunity are
not currently hampered by the Outer Continental Shelf
Lands Act, there is concern that it may "creep" from the

shelf to the deep-ocean floor through expediency. Rather
than struggle within these constraints, the Regulations
subpanel has modified the proposed outer continental shelf
approach to recognize the fundamental difference in orebody
rights, those of the United States government in the case
of the outer continental shelf, and those accruing to the
miner in the deep-ocean beyond national jurisdiction.
Since it is not known at this time how regulation of the
deep seabed will be implemented, these suggested regula-
tions are intended to be useful to both the Executive
Branch and the Congress.

Beyond 200 meters (650 ft) water depth, the question of
who owns the minerals is unclear. That question is presently
under negotiation within the international community and
under discussion in the United States. Some observers ex-
pect that United States companies will go into the deep--ocean
and mine minerals in advance of a formal international agree-
ment. Congress is considering action which, in effect,
authorizes and controls such activity. it is the view of
the Panel that passage of the Deep Seabed Hard Minerals
Act is quite likely. It is as-sumed that should such
mining take place, United States companies will be
regulated by the United States Government. Under these
circumstances, the 'United States will assert its right to
regulate because the miner is a 'United States natural or
juridical person.

The Panel's approach to regulation has been to trade the
financial advantage to the government of bonus or royalty
bid allocation by sealed competitive bid, for a system
which will provide early information and informed manage-
ment. There is responsibility for the government to
perform its statutory tasks in an informed fashion; there-
fore, there must be an adequate flow of data from the
ocean miner to the responsible government agency. It is
doubtful that enough quantitative data on deep seabeds
exists, at present, to permit effective "resource manage-
ment" by the government.

Performance standards are required which provide industry
with incentives to improve its technology. improved tech-
nology will result in appropriate rewards to both govern-
ment and industry in the form of increased economic return
and enhanced protection of the environment.

The principal objective behind these proposed regulations
is the creation of a system of procedures that will make
management of these resources responsive to a broad set
of public and economic concerns. To accomplish this
continuous updating of all kinds of information, contin-
uous improvement of the technologies being utilized, and
continuous checking on both the performance of the
companies and the performance of the government's agency is
required. We believe that at an early stage in the
development of an industry, the only real hope is in the
93

creation of a flexible and imaginative set of procedures
for managing these resources.

Regulatory Principles Covering Hard Minerals Mining
in the Deep Ocean

Prospecting (No Government Permit Required)

Prospecting, using such methods as magnetic, gravi-
metric, and seismic surveys, as well as bottom sampling
and shallow coring, should be available to any United
States citizen or company without prior approval. The
principle of freedom of the seas applies here.

Environmental Impact Statement (Refer to Pages 63-66)

Exploration-Production License

It should be the policy of the federal government to
license mineral production and exploration in the deep-
ocean, as opposed to leasing land containing minerals.
As in the case of the outer continental shelf (pages 75-
76) there should be a regional programmatic environmental
impact statement prior to issuing an exploration-production
license in any region. The region may be identified by
oceans, areas of oceans, geological structure or kinds
of orebody. There should also be a specific detailed
license environmental impact statement at the point that
a company converts from exploration to production (pages
78-79).

Alternative Licensing Procedures

Exploration-production licenses should be given for an
initial period of 20 years, renewable for an additional 20,
on the basis of work programs submitted by the companies.
Such programs should designate the extent of the mining
activities to which the company commits itself over a given
period of time and in a given area. Additionally, such work
programs should also include an effort to minimize the
impact of production activities on other interests in the
area.

Information and Data

After issuing an exploration-production license, the federal
government should have access to all technical and environ-
mental data on the license area held by the licensee. Tech-
nical data shall be treated as proprietary by the federal
government and by environmental monitoring entities or
consultants, at least until relinquishment, abandonment,
or termination of the license. Environmental data should
be- released to the public as rapidly as practicable, with
due consideration for the proprietary nature of the tech-
nology-.

Data to be held as proprietary should be those which are
directly related to technical and engineering development
and the geological and geophysical information charac-
terizing the resource area. Information relevant to the
environment, or to alternate -uses of the area, should
also be made available. Responsibility for determining
data -co be released should rest with the Department of
the Interior.

The licensee. should be obligated to provide significant
information on environmental or multiple-use concerns
associated with his operations as a part of the notifica-
tion procedure. Additionally, any significant changes
in the type, quantity, or quality of production operations
from those described in the license application should
also be included in the notification that production opera-
tions will be undertaken.

Payment

Licenses should not be allocated on the basis of bonus or
royalty bids. Rather, royalty rates should be established
by the federal government based on the costs and benefits
to the licensee. Royalty rates should be low when the
risks are high and vice versa. That is, as technology and
procedures are developed that bring increasing stability
to operations, royalty rates should be increased. To
assist in setting royalty rates, interior should, at fixed
intervals, establish ad hoc commissions, to assess the
aeucofthesryEe~_ charedmissiong choul empadeuno iversean
Theeucyommsin sheouldbe n charged upin cofpaniversean
fi-nancially-disinterested, persons. Particular attention
should be paid to the establishment of the ad hoc commis-
si-on.

Relinquishment

At fixed time intervals, substantial percentages of the
resource rights covered by the initial license should be
relinquished. This would encourage extensive and early
exploration and provide maximum information. The major
relinquishment should be triggered at the point where
the first commercial production begins. A 50 percent
relinquishment is considered appropriate for early
licenses.

Regulatory Management

Except where prohibited by existing legislation, responsi-
bility for the management and regulation of offshore
mining should be concentrated in the Department of the
Interior. Interior should be clearly and publicly respon-
sible for the safety of marine mining operations and have
sufficient authority and capability to carry out this
responsibility.

Standards Specifications

The United States Government should support the establish-
ment of an independent standard-setting organization
using Det norske Veritas as a model. This organization
should provide the technological support for United States
regulation of marine mining.

Safety and Environmental Protection

Safety and environmental protection technology used in
marine mining should be the "best available" commercial
standard, with adequate provisions made for observation
and monitoring the various environmental effects of mining
previously outlined.

29 Meiser, H.J. and E. Miller. 1973. Manganese
Nodules: A Further Resource to Meet Mineral
Requirements?. Papers on the Origin and
Distribution of Manganese Nodules in the Pacific
and Prospects for Exploration, Maury Morgenstein,
(ed.), pp. 23-25.

30 Horn, D.R., et al. 1972. Ferromanganese Deposits
of the North Pacific Ocean, Palisades, New York:
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory.

31 Dietz, R.S. 1955. Manganese Deposits on the
Northeast Pacific Seafloor. Cal. Jour. Mines
and Geol., Vol. 51, pp. 209-220.

32 Horn, D.R., et al. 1972. Ferromanganese Deposits
of the North Pacific Ocean, Palisades, New York:
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory.

3 Buser, W. 1959. The Nature of the Iron and Man-
ganese Compounds in Manganese Nodules. Inter-
national Oceanography Congress Preprints, p. 962.

Horn, D.R., et al. 1972. Ferromanganese Deposits
of the North Pacific Ocean, Palisades, New York:
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory.

35 Roels, O.A., et al. 1973. Environmental Impact
of Deep-Sea Mining, NOAA Technical Report ERL 290-
ODll, Boulder: Department of Commerce.
36
Welling, C.G. 1972. Some Environmental Factors
Associated With Deep Ocean Mining. Preprints
of the 8th Annual Marine Technoloqv Society
Meeting, Washington, D.C.

37 Shepard, F.P. 1972. Submarine Geology, (3rd ed.),
New York: Harper & Row.

38 Masuda, Y., et al. 1971. Continuous Bucket-Line
Dredging at 12,000 Feet. Offshore Technology
Conference Preprints, Vol. II, pp. 837-858.

Garland, C. and R. Hagerty. 1972. Environmental
Planning Considerations for Deep Ocean Mining.
Preprints of the 8th Annual Marine Technolocv
Society Meeting, Washington, D.C.

4 Garland, C. and R. Hagerty. 1972. Environmental
Planning Considerations for Deep Ocean Mining.
Proceedings of the 8th Annual Marine Technology
Society Meeting, Washington, D.C.

41 Malone, T.C., et al. 1973. The Possible Occurrence
of Photosynthetic Microorganisms in Deep Sea Sedi-
ments of the North Atlantic. Jour. of Phycology,
Vol. 9, pp. 482-488.

2 Amos, A.F., et al. 1972. Deep-Ocean Mining:
Some Effects of Surface Discharged Deep Water.
Papers from a Conference on Ferromanganese
Deposits on the Ocean Floor, D.R. Horn (ed.),
Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation.

43 Roels, O.A., et al. 1973. Environmental Impact
of Deep-Sea Mining, NOAA Technical Report ERL 290-
ODll, Boulder: Department of Commerce.

44 Cardwell, P.H. 1973. Extractive Metallurgy of
Ocean Nodules. Paper presented during the Mining
Convention/Environmental Show of the American
Mining Congress, 9-12 September, 1973, Denver,
Colorado.

CHAPTER FIVE
EDUCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS: MANPOWER FOR OCEAN MINING

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE
The Panel initially considered several different aspects
of education, including direct public information and
the public's view of marine mining as projected through
the mass news media--television, press and radio. In the
end, the Panel chose to center its attention on higher
education as a manpower service for'ocean mining, includ-
ing the attendant activities of marine minerals explora-
tion and mi-ning regulation and monitoring. The Panel
believes that providing the specially trained manpower
necessary to the future development and wise administration
of ocean mining should be a national concern. Moreover the
Panel judges that education per se does not make the
distinction between mining i~n__ee~p water versus conti-
nental shelf; thus, this part of the study cuts across
the at-sea operational boundary.

As an embryonic industry, marine mining has fostered only
the beginnings of specific institutions, educational
materials, and tailored curricula. The engineers and
technicians currently engaged in frontier development of
marine mining have been trained in other disciplines, and
have simply extended their earlier training and experience
to meet marine mining demands. This is not unlike the
earlier efforts of land-oriented biologists, geologists,
and physical scientists who, earlier, entered oceanography.
Nevertheless, the demands of marine mining a decade hence,
and possibly much sooner, do require that the full educa-
tional spectrum be considered. This should include public
education through the executive tier of corporate,.
congressional and agency organizations, and through the
operational levels for the training of marine mining specia-
lists in the professional category, technicians, operators
and supervisory managers. it is a large order.

As with any new industry during its early growth, marine
mining must draw upon existing educational processes and
institutions. in this instance, the related activities
are ocean science and engineering, mining, offshore
petroleum production, minerals exploration, environ-
mental and resource sciences, economics, marine affairs,
and admiralty and international law. In assessing the
current state of the present educational spectrum related
to these activities, more was drawn from the experience
and knowledge of the Panel than from documented study.
The Panel examined the needs for informing the public
and for educating future marine mining manpower.

FPUBLIC UNDERSTANDING
In order for the public to support ocean mining activities,
it needs to be informed with accuracy and credibility. To
assess the present state of public understanding about the
subject, a graduate student of one of the Panel members
sampled the most typical ways information is circulated--
by the popular news media, both printed and electronic.
This sampling was not exhaustive, although it covered
newspapers and publications listed in the Readers Guide
to Periodical Literature (for the period March 1972 to
April 1974), and television and radio coverage (from
March 1974 to May 1974). Based an this survey, the Panel
concluded:

1. Both oil recovery and mineral mining in the ocean
appear to be closely linked in the minds of the public--
even those informed about the activities.

2. The informed public receives only limited information
on ocean mining issues. In general, such information
reflects the concept that benefits outweight environ-
mental costs.

3. Although there is increasing public concern about
offshore oil operations and ocean pollution, the
average citizen has not been informed about many
ocean mining issues.

GOVERNMENT AGENCY AND LEGISLATIVE EDUCATION

The primary educational mechanisms for government
agencies and legislative bodies concerned with ocean
mining have been special studies and reports, public
hearings, and specialized conferences. This report
is an example of one way that the Department of the
Interior engages in self-education and in the pro-
mulgation of informed opinion. Although some education-
al and informational materials are generated for the
education of government, no organization focuses direct-
ly on the preparation of educational materials concern-
ing marine mining.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

with regard to formal graduate and undergraduate education
at the university level, the Panel determined that each
discipline of importance is covered to some extent,
especially in those institutions offering interdisciplinary
courses and research in ocean science and engineering.
Most universities and colleges, however, are land-oriented
and have few marine-oriented courses. The net result is
that scientists engaged in marine minerals exploration and
engineers working in marine mining require on-the-job
education in ocean-related problems. Scientists and

engineers trained in oceanography and ocean engineering
require additional training, for example, in mineral explor-
ation, mining systems, ore processing, and mineral economics
in order to obtain the necessary professional background.
Basic physics and chemistry should be included in the train-
ing. The Panel's review of marine science curricula indi-
cates that there are at least 40 institutions offering various
degrees in ocean engineering, marine technology, engineering
with a marine option, and oceanography with an engineering
option. But there is not one institution offering a formal
degree in marine mining .4 This may suggest an area for
additional emphasis at certain universities .461 There are
however, several universities that do provide some training
in marine minerals exploration and ocean mining through
student participation in ocean mining research projects.
These vary widely in their level of funding, degree of
application, and number of student and staff participants.
The majority of them are supported, at least in part,
by the Department of Commerce (National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration-Sea Grant Office) and the
National Science Foundation (Office of the International
Decade of Ocean Exploration). Some noteworthy of men-
tion are:

1. University of Hawaii - research in manganese nodule
distribution and geochemistry in the Pacific, and
in sand mining along the insular shores;

2. Lehigh University - engineering research on sedi-
ment properties pertinent to placing stationary or
mobile machines on the seafloor;

3. Columbia University (Lamnont-Doherty Geological
Observatory) - research projects on seafloor deposits
and topography, nodule distribution, economics of
marine mining, and geophysical investigations of
potential nodule mining sites; and on environmental
impact of deep sea mining.

4. University of California (Scripps Institution of
Oceanography) - research on nodule composition in
prospective mining areas of the Pacific, and seismic
profiling of nodule/sediment layers;

5. University of Washington - ocean law related to sea-
floor mining, and nodule geochemistry;

6. Louisiana State University - studies of international
law related to deep ocean mining;

7. 'University of Rhode island - research on nodule
chemistry, and studies in the Law of the Sea
Institute;

8. University of Georgia - applied nuclear engineering
re~search- on in si-tu assessment of metal (ore) grade
of nodules;

100

9. Texas A&M University - applied marine geology and
dredging engineering;

10. 'University of Wisconsin - maintains a major research
program devoted to seafloor minerals exploration,
with ancillary projects in research and development
related to outer continental shelf mining and proces-
sing systems. S-ome of the current projects include:
exploration research on platinum, gold, tungsten, tin
and rare earths in the Bering Sea outer continental
shelf waters; lode copper beneath Lake Superior;
lode barite beneath southeastern Alaskan waters; heavy
minerals, southeastern Alaskan coast; euxinic sulf ides
on continental slope off Texas; nucleus/ore grade
relations in deep ocean nodules; manganese pellets in
Lake Michigan; hydrocyclone systems for outer conti-
nental shelf placer mining; and design of pre-mining
outer continental shelf site surveys for environmental
analysis. in addition, new projects are currently
being planned to investigate and assess the mineral
resources off certain United States insular possess-
ions, including Samoa, Trust Territories, and Puerto
Rico.

11. City University of New York (in collaboration with
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory) - study of the
environmental impact of deep-ocean mining.

12. University of Southern California - applied geological
and biological research on areas of potential sand
dredging in coastal California waters, and development
of environmental surveys for -shallow marine waters.

None of the above institutions presently offer a degree, on
any level, in marine minerals exploration or ocean mining.
However, the carefully guided student can, by careful selec-
tion of courses, achieve a reasonably good education in the
basic sciences and engineering required by the ocean
mining industry. This suggests a related educational
effort in ocean mining requirements for faculty counse-
lors in the ocean curricula. This is not likely to
remain so, as the industry develops. The most direct
and applicable education in academic institutions today
is obtained by students who serve as laboratory and
shipboard assistants in on-going, marine mining related
research projects. Obviously, these opportunities are
few.

Support of these projects comes largely through agency
grants, notably those of the National Science Foundation-
International Decade of ocean Exploration, and the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-Sea Grant. Since
1972 research grants from the industrial sector have
steadily increased, largely to support graduate students
and operational expenses. Some students who were associated
with these academic research projects have now been em-

101

played by firms engaged in nearshore marine mining and
by firms currently planning deep-ocean nodule mining. Such
a system, while it provides in-depth education through
research participation, cannot be expected to provide
the large number of young professionals who will be needed
in the next 10 years for industry and for the staffs of
government agencies, including regulatory units.

TECHNICAL SUPPORT PERSONNEL EDUCATION

marine mining requires special skills at the technician
level in addition to normal shipboard activity experience.
During survey, exploration, and production operations, tech-
nicians are required to operate underwater cameras and tele-
vision equipment, mining machinery, instruments for nodule
analysis, pilot mining tests, environmental monitoring equip-
ment, deck machinery, tuggers, pumps and winches, as well as
to perform the duties of normal seamanship.

The present educational programs, usually consisting of
two years of combined classroom and shipboard instruction,
can provide--with modest modification--the needed technicians.
On the technician level, it is believed that on-the-job
training (in addition to a two-year classroom period)
will provide the kind, number and quality of technicians
that will be needed.

SUMMARY
In short, public and formal education in marine mining
is, like the industry, in its formative stages. Limited
capabilities now exist in some university curricula,
and through the international and national studies required
to initiate the industry. A few young marine mining pro-
fessionals are being graduated from a few universities
as a result of their participation in related research
projects, although no formal degrees are, as yet, being
awarded. Technician training, to become effective, must
have further input from the industrial and academic
sectors. Expanded research support will provide tech-
nological and scientific results and specialized manpower
to meet early industrial and regulatory needs. In addition,
some curriculum development programs may be usefully intro-
duced with the support of appropriate government agencies.

Is Federal Council for Science and Technology. 1973.
University Curricula in the Marine Sciences and
Related Fields, Academic Year 1973-1974,
1974-1975, Revised, Washington, D.C.: Marine
Technology Society.

46 Moore, J.R. 1972. Exploitation of Ocean Mineral
Resources - Perspectives and Predictions.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
Vol. 72, pp. 193-206.

102

APPENDIX A

THE PANEL ON OPERATIONAL SAFETY IN MARINE MINING

DISCIPLINE

J. Robert Moore, Chairman Marine Geology
Director Minerals Exploration
Marine Research Laboratory
The University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin

James M. Comstock Marine Engineering
Chief of Engineering Marine Mining
Ocean Mining Programs
Lockheed Missiles and Space Company
Sunnyvale, California

John P. Craven Marine Engineering
Dean International Law
Marine Programs
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii

Marne Dubs marine Mining
Director Chemical Engineering
Ocean Resources Department
Corporate Exploration Group
Kennecott-Copper Corporation
New York, New York

John E. Flipse marine Engineering
President Marine Mining
Deepsea Ventures, Incorporated
Gloucester Point, Virginia

Don E. Kash Political Science
Director Public Policy
Science and Public Policy Program
Professor of Political Science
University of Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma

Martha Kohler oceanography
Senior Oceanographer Water Resources Management
Scientific Development Division
Environmental Services Department
Bechtel Corporation
San Francisco, California

103

DISCIPLINE
Oswald Roels Biological oceanography
Chairman Chemistry
Biological Oceanography
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
Columbia University
Palisades, New York and
Professor, University Institute of
Oceanography
The City College of New York

John L. Shaw Electrical Engineering
President and Marine Mining
General Manager
Ocean Management, Incorporated
Bellevue, Washington

Dorothy F. Soule Marine Biology, Ecology
Director Environmental Engineering
Harbor Environmental Projects
Allan Hancock Foundation and
Adjunct Professor of Environmental
Engineering
The University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California

Raymond Thompson Geology
Consulting Geologist Mining
Denver, Colorado

Thomas M. Turner Marine Engineering
Vice President and General manager Dredging
Ellicott Machine Corporation
Baltimore, Maryland

U.S. GOVERNMENT LIAISON REPRESENTATIVES
Michael Cruickshank
Conservation Division
United States Geological Survey
Menlo Park, California
William B. Gazdik
Conservation Division
United States Geological Survey
Washington, D.C.

Francis Monastero
Bureau of Land Management
United States Geological Survey
Washington, D.C.
John Padan
Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Seattle, Washington

104

APPENDIX B

MARINE MINING WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

Curtis Amuedo Julian Gresser
Amuedo and Ivey University of Hawaii
Denver, Colorado Honolulu, Hawaii

Michael Baram John B. Herbich
Massachusetts Institute of Texas A&M University
Technology College Station, Texas
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Thomas Jennings
George Brown Bureau of Land Management
United States Coast Guard Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Don E. Kash
John J. Collins The University of Oklahoma
American Smelting and Norman, Oklahoma
Refining Company
New York, New York Martha Kohler
Bechtel Corporation
James M. Comstock San Francisco, California
Lockheed Missiles and Space
Company Martin Krenzke
Sunnyvale, California Naval Ship Research and
Development Center
John P. Craven Washington, D.C.
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii William Lee
Massachusetts Institute of
Michael Cruickshank Technology
U.S. Geological Survey Cambridge, Massachusetts
Menlo Park, California
John McWilliams
George Doumani Bureau of Mines
Library of Congress Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
John Mero
John E. Flipse Ocean Resources, Incorporated
Deepsea Ventures, Incorporated La Jolla, California
Gloucester Point, Virginia

Richard Frank J. Robert Moore
Center for Law and Social Policy University of Wisconsin
Washington, D.C. Madison, Wisconsin

William Gazdik Robert Niblock
U.S. Geological Survey Office of Technology Assessment
Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.

105

John W. Padan Charles Sours
Pacific Marine Environmental U.S. Geological Survey
Laboratory Reston, Virginia
Seattle, Washington
Paul Swatek
Oswald Roels Massachusetts Audubon Society
Lamont-Doherty Geological Lincoln, Massachusetts
Observatory of Columbia
University Raymond Thompson
Palisades, New York and Consulting Geologist
University Institute of Denver, Colorado
Oceanography
The City College of New York Russell G. Wayland
U.S. Geological Survey
John L. Shaw Reston, Virginia
Ocean Management, Incorporated
Bellevue, Washington Elmer P. Wheaton
Lockheed Missiles and Space
Mehmet Sherif Company (Retired)
University of Washington Sunnyvale, California
Seattle, Washington
Robert B. Ziegler
Dorothy F. Soule IHC Holland, Dredger Division
University of Southern California Mystic, Connecticut
Los Angeles, California

106

APPENDIX C

OTHER CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS STUDY

Grant Ash William Murden
Corps of Engineers Department of the Army
Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.

Andrew Bailey Edward Newhouse
U.S. Geological Survey NOAA-Department of Commerce
Reston, Virginia Rockville, Maryland

Frederick Beck Martin Prochnik
Callahan Mining Corporation Department of the Interior
New York, New York Washington, D.C.

Newell Booth Leigh Ratiner
Naval Undersea Center Department of the Interior
San Diego, California Washington, D.C.

George Doumani Eric Schneider
Library of Congress Environmental Protection
Washington, D.C. Agency
Washington, D.C.
Richard Gardner
Office of Coastal Zone Management David Story
Washington, D.C. Senate Interior and Insular
Affairs Committee
Antoine Gaudin (Deceased) Washington, D.C.
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Theodore Sudia
Cambridge, Massachusetts National Park Service
Washington, D.C.
Amor Lane
NOAA-Department of Commerce John B. Wade
Rockville, Maryland United States Coast Guard
Washington, D.C.
Donald Martineau
NOAA-Department of Commerce David Wallace
Rockville, Maryland NOAA-Department of Commerce
Rockville, Maryland
Myers S. McDougal
Yale University. George M. Watts
New Haven, Connecticut Coastal Engineering Research
Center
Edward Miles Fort Belvoir, Virginia
Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts

107

APPENDIX D

MEMBERSHIP OF THE MARINE BOARD

ASSEMBLY OF ENGINEERING
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

*Alfred A.H. Keil, Chairman
Dean of Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts

*Elmer P. Wheaton, Vice Chairman
Vice President and General Manager, Retired
Lockheed Missiles and Space Company
Sunnyvale, California

*Walter C. Bachman
Vice President and Chief Engineer, Retired
Gibbs and Cox, Incorporated
Short Hills, New Jersey

**Victor T. Boatwright, Jr.
Technical Assistant to the Engineering Director
Electric Boat Division
General Dynamics
Groton, Connecticut

*John P. Craven
Dean of Marine Programs
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii

**Ira Dyer
Head
Department of Ocean Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts

**Phillip Eisenberg
Chairman
Executive Committee
Hydronautics, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland

John E. Flipse
President
Deepsea Ventures, Incorporated
Gloucester Point, Virginia

Ronald L. Geer
Consulting Mechanical Engineer
Shell Oil Company
Houston, Texas

*Ben Clifford Gerwick, Jr.
Professor of Civil Engineering
University of California
Berkeley, California

*Earnest F. Gloyna
Dean
College of Engineering
and Joe J. King Professor
University of Texas
Austin, Texas

*Claude R. Hocott
Visiting Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Texas
Austin, Texas

*John R. Kiely
Executive Consultant
Bechtel Corporation
San Francisco, California

Christian J. Lambertsen
Director
Institute for Environmental Medicine
University of Pennsylvania Medical
Center
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

*George F. Mechlin
Vice President, Research
General Manager, Research Laboratories
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

**J. Robert Moore
Director
Marine Research Laboratory
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin

George C. Nickum
President
Nickum and Spaulding Associates, Incorporated
Seattle, Washington

Erman A. Pearson
Professor of Civil Engineering
University of California
Berkeley, California

109

**W.F. Searle, Jr.
President
Searle Consultants, Incorporated
Alexandria, Virginia

*Herman E. Sheets
Chairman and Professor
Department of Ocean Engineering
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island

James H. Wakelin, Jr.
President
Research Analysis Corporation
McLean, Virginia

**O.D. Waters, Jr., USN (Ret)
Professor and Head
Department of Oceanography
Florida Institute of Technology
Melbourne, Florida

*Robert L. Wiegel
Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
University of California
Berkeley, California

STAFF

Jack W. Boller
Executive Director
Marine Board
Assembly of Engineering
National Research Council

Donald L. Keach
Assistant Executive Director
Marine Board
Assembly of Engineering
National Research Council

* Member, National Academy of Engineering
** Ex-Officio Member, Marine Board

110

APPENDIX E

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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(ed.), The Sea, New York: Interscience Publishers,
pp. 655-727.

Arrhenius, G., et al. 1964. Origin of oceanic
manganese minerals. Science, 144, pp. 170-173.

Baer, L. and H.L. Crutcher. 1973. Environmental
predictions. I. A. Givens and A. B. Cummins, (eds.),
SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Vol. 2, New York:
AIME.

Barnes, Burton B. 1970. Marine phosphorite deposit
delineation techniques tested on the Coronado Bank,
Southern California. Offshore Technology Con-
ference Preprints, Vol. 2, pp. 315-350.

Battelle Memorial Institute. 1971. Environmental
disturbances of concern to marine mining research,
a selected annotated bibliography, NOAA, ERL MMTC-
3, 72 p.

Bender, M.L. 1970. Manganese nodules. R. Fairbridge,
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Geochemistry and Environmental
Sciences, New York: Reinhold.

Bezrukov, P. 1962. Distribution of iron-manganese
nodules on the floor of the Indian Ocean. Oceanology,
pp. 1014-1019.

Blissenback, E. 1972. Continental drift and metalliferous
sediments. Oceanology International Proceedings, pp. 412-
416.

Bonatti, E. 1972. Authigenesis of marine minerals.
R. Fairbridge, (ed.), Encyclopedia of Geochemistry and
Environmental Sciences, New York: Reinhold.

Brahtz, J.F. 1968. Ocean Engineering, New York: John
Wiley and Sons.

Brown, B.F. 1968. Metals and corrosion. Machine
Design, pp. 165-173.

111

Cathcart, J.B. 1968. Phosphate in the Atlantic and
Gulf Coastal Plains. The Proceedings of the
Fourth Forum on Geology of Industrial Minerals,
pp. 23-24.

Cohn, P.D. and J.R. Welch. 1969. Power sources.
J. T. Myers, (ed.), Handbook of Ocean and Under-
water Engineering, New York: McGraw Hill.

Cooper, J.D. 1970. Sand and gravel. Mineral Facts
and Problems, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines,
pp. 1185-1199.

Corp, E.L. 1970. Preliminary engineering studies to
characterize the marine mining environment, Washington,
D.C.: Bureau of Mines Pub. 7373.

Cronan, D.S. and J.S. Tooms. 1967. Sub-surface con-
centrations of manganese nodules in Pacific sediments.
Deep Sea Research, Vol. 14, pp. 117-119.

Cruickshank, M.J., et al. 1968. Offshore mining:
present and future. Jour. Engin. Min.

Davenport, J.M. 1971. Incentives for ocean mining:
a case study of sand and gravel. Marine Technology
Society Journal, Vol. 5, pp. 35-40.

Doumani, G.A. 1973. Ocean Wealth, Policy and Potential,
Rochelle Park: Spartan Books.

Duane, D.B. 1969. A study of New Jersey and northern
New England coastal waters. Shore and Beach, Vol.
37, No. 2, pp. 12-16.

Ebersole, W.C. 1971. Predicting disturbances to the near
and offshore sedimentary regime from marine mining.
Water, Air and Soil Pollution, pp. 72-88.

Eggington, W.J. and D.B. George. 1970. Application of
air cushion technology to offshore drilling operations
in the arctic. Offshore Technology Conference Pre-
prints, Vol. 2, pp. 203-214.

Ehrlich, H.L. 1970. The microbiology of manganese
nodules, Washington, D.C.: ONR NR 137-655, pp. 1-17.

. 1968. Rare Earth Abundances in Manganese
Nodules, Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 216 p.

Emery, K.O. 1960. The Sea off Southern California,
New York: John Wiley and Sons.

� 1966. Geological methods for locating
mineral deposits on the ocean floor. Exploiting

112

the Ocean, Transcript of the Second Annual Marine
Technology Society Conference and Exhibit, pp. 24-43.

� 1968. The continental shelf and its
mineral resources. Selected Papers from the Governor's
Conference on Oceanography, Albany: New York State,
Department of Commerce, pp. 36-51.

, et al. 1970. Continental rise off eastern
North America. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, Vol. 54, pp. 44-108.

Firth, F.E., (ed.). 1969. The Encyclopedia of Marine
Resources, New York: Van Nostrand, Reinhold and Company.

Hawkes, H.E. and J.S. Webb. 1964. Geochemistry in
Mineral Exploration, New York: Harper and Row.

Heezen, B.C. and H.W. Menard. 1963. Topography of the
deep sea floor. M. N. Hill (ed.), The Sea, Vol. 3,
New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Hess, Harold D. 1971. Marine Sand and Gravel Mining
Industry of the U.K., Washington, D.C.: NOAA ERL 213-
MMTC 1.

Hulsemann, J. 1967. The continental margin off the
Atlantic coast of the United States: carbonate in
sediments, Nova Scotia to Hudson Canyon. Sedimentology
Vol. 8, pp. 121-145.

Iwata, H. 1970. Research on dredging grab buckets.
Proceedings of the World Dredqinq Conference, Tokyo.

James, H.L. 1968. Mineral resource potential of the
deep ocean. Proceedings of a Symposium on Mineral
Resources of the World Ocean, University of Rhode
Island Pub. 4, pp. 39-44.

Jenkins, R.L. 1973. Position control. I.A. Givens
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Kaufman, R. and W.D. Siapno. 1972. Future needs of
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Offshore Technology Conference Preprints, Vol. 2.,
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Lahman, H.S., et al. 1972. The Evolution and Utilization
of Marine Mineral Resources, Cambridge: Massachusetts
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LaQue, F. 1963. Materials selection for ocean engineering.
J. F. Brahtz (ed.), Ocean Engineering, New York: John Wiley
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113

Leopold, L.B., et al. 1971. A procedure for evaluating
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Survey Circular 645.

Libby, F. 1969. Searching for alluvial gold deposits
off Nova Scotia. Ocean Industry, Vol. 4, No. 1,
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Maher, J.C. 1971. Geological framework and petroleum
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margin, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 659.

Mauriello, L.J. and R.A. Dennis. 1968. Assessing and
controlling hydraulic dredge performance. Proceedings
of the World Dredging Conference, Rotterdam.

McIlhenny, W.F. and D.A. Ballard. 1963. The sea as a
source of dissolved chemicals. Proceedings of the
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McKelvey, V.E., et al. 1969. Subsea physiographic
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Menard, H.W. 1964. Marine Geology of the Pacific,
New York: McGraw Hill, 271 p.

Mero, John L. 1965. The Mineral Resources of the
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393.

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, et al. 1971. Bottom sediments on the
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Sorensen, Jens. C and W.J. Mead. 1969. A new economic
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116

APPENDIX F

FOREIGN CONTINENTAL SHELF DEVELOPMENTS

1. JAPAN 47

Japan consumed 540 million metric tons (592 million tons)
of aggregate for construction projects in 1971, 310 mil-
lion metric tons (338 million tons) of which were natural
material. Of the latter, 58 million metric tons (64
million tons), 19%, came from the seafloor. While
crushed rock has begun to take the dominant position in
coarse aggregate in recent years, fine aggregate has
increasingly been supplied from the seafloor. In fact,
98% of the offshore production is sand--all from the near-
shore areas less than 20 meters (65 ft) in water depth.

This production involves 900 small dredges of the follow-
ing types:

Bucket----------53%

Sand pump--------33%

Clam shell -------14%

Environmental problems have occurred in recent years as a
result of this near-shore activity. Destruction of
nurseries, breakage of fishing nets, shipping casualties,
and coastal erosion all have been experienced. The coastal
erosion fears have become so widespread that prefecture
governors have been reluctant to give new mining licenses.
As a result, the Ministry of International Trade and Indus-
try (MITI) is monitoring two test sites where it is hoped
that a cause and effect relationship can be established.
Unfortunately, there are as yet no biologic studies tied to
this continental shelf activity.

2. UNITED KINGDOM 48

Production of seafloor aggregate in 1970 was approximately
13 million metric tons (14 million tons), or about 13% of
total United Kingdom production-a percentage that has
been increasing in recent years. Except for a few old
barge-mounted clam-shells, the 80 vessel United Kingdom
marine mining fleet is made up of suction hopper dredges.
Cargo capacities of the dredges range from about 460 to
9,200 metric tons (500 to 10,000 tons). The trend is

117

toward larger and larger dredges to reduce the cost per
unit of material dredged.

3. FRANCE 49

Demand for construction aggregate has been growing at 11%
per year in France at the same time that urban growth,
zoning restrictions, and ground water problems have caused
onshore resources to become less and less available. A
National Center for Ocean Exploitation survey of the off-
shore potential has led to a four-year environmental study
modeled after the United States Project NOMES (New England
Offshore Mining Environmental Study) which was aborted in
1973.

Following pre-mining baseline examinations, dredging began
in January 1974 at the first of two test sites. At the
first site, off the mouth of the Seine, four million cubic
meters (1.5 x 10e cubic ft) of sand and gravel are being
removed from a rectangular pit, five meters (16 ft) deep,
over a two-year period. A trailing suction hopper dredge
is being used for the investigation.

The major environmental impact studies involve dispersion
of the dredge-discharged silt plume, effects on benthic
populations and effects on plankton.

4. EUROPE (General) so

Nine nations are participating in an Intergovernmental
Commission on Exploitation of the Seas (ICCS) study aimed
at defining the state of knowledge of the impact of marine
sand and gravel mining on fisheries. In addition to the
United Kingdom and France, six other European nations (as
well as the United States) are considering how to respond
to industrial requests for leases. Norway, Denmark,
Sweden, Germany, Belgium and Ireland all are involved.

5. INDONESIA 5I

Ten to twelve bucket ladder dredges mine continental shelf
tin placer deposits off Indonesia. The dredges work to the
leeward of the tin islands and so enjoy the calm waters
necessary for bucket ladder operations.

A recent study by the United States Geological Survey
surveys the environmental problems in this area. 52

47 Sasaki, K. 1973. Sea Floor Sand and Gravel
Mining in Japan - Present Situation and Prob-
lems, Washington, D.C.: Japan Cooperative
Program in Natural Resources (UJNR) Unpublished
Report, Department of Commerce.

118

48 Hess, Harold D. 1971. Marine Sand and Gravel
Mining Industry of the United Kingdom, NOAA
Technical Report ERL 213-MMTC 1, Washington,
D.C.: Department of Commerce.

49 Cressard, Alain-Philippe. 1974. Consequential
Effects of Industrial Exploitation of Sand and
Gravel on the Marine Environment and the Economic
Activities of the Maritime Field, Paris: Centre
National pour l'Exploitation des Oceans.

5 Personal Communication, John W. Padan, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

51 Personal Communication, Mr. Sutedjo, Indonesian
Tin Company, Bangka, Indonesia.

52 Acuff, Dewey. 1974. Environmental Protection
Recommendations for Petroleum and Mining Operations
in Asian Offshore Areas, Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Geological Survey.

119