[Federal Register Volume 73, Number 246 (Monday, December 22, 2008)]
[Notices]
[Pages 78318-78331]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: E8-30359]
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DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
RIN 0648-XM10
Taking and Importing Marine Mammals; Taking Marine Mammals
Incidental to Conducting Air-to-Surface Gunnery Missions in the Gulf of
Mexico
AGENCY: National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Commerce.
ACTION: Notice of issuance of an incidental harassment authorization.
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SUMMARY: In accordance with provisions of the Marine Mammal Protection
Act (MMPA) as amended, notification is hereby given that an Incidental
Harassment Authorization (IHA) to take marine mammals, by harassment,
incidental to conducting air-to-surface (A-S) gunnery missions in the
Gulf of Mexico (GOM), a military readiness activity, has been issued to
Eglin Air Force Base (Eglin AFB) for a period of 1 year.
DATES: Effective from December 11, 2008, through December 10, 2009.
ADDRESSES: The authorization, Eglin AFB's application containing a list
of the references used in this document, and NMFS' Environmental
Assessment (EA) may be obtained by writing to P. Michael Payne, Chief,
Permits, Conservation and Education Division, Office of Protected
Resources, National Marine Fisheries Service, 1315 East-West Highway,
Silver Spring, MD 20910-3226. A copy of Eglin's original 2003
application and its December, 2006 letter updating its request may be
obtained by writing to this address, by telephoning the contact listed
here (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT) and is also available at:
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/permits/incidental.htm#applications. A copy
of the Final Programmatic EA (Final PEA) is available by writing to the
Department of the Air Force, AAC/EMSN, Natural Resources Branch, 501
DeLeon St., Suite 101, Eglin AFB, FL 32542-5133.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Kenneth R. Hollingshead, NMFS, 301-
713-2289, ext 128.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
Sections 101(a)(5)(A) and 101(a)(5)(D) of the Marine Mammal
Protection Act (16 U.S.C. 1361 et seq.)(MMPA) direct the Secretary of
Commerce (Secretary) to allow, upon request, the incidental, but not
intentional taking of marine mammals by U.S. citizens who engage in a
specified activity (other than commercial fishing) within a specified
geographical region if certain findings are made and regulations are
issued or, if the taking is limited to harassment, a notice of a
proposed authorization is provided to the public for review.
Permission may be granted if NMFS finds that the taking will have a
negligible impact on the affected species or stock(s), will not (where
relevant) have an unmitigable adverse impact on the availability of the
species or stock(s) for subsistence uses, and if the permissible
methods of taking and requirements pertaining to the mitigation,
monitoring and reporting of such takings are set forth. NMFS has
defined ``negligible impact'' in 50 CFR 216.103 as ``* * * an impact
resulting from the specified activity that cannot be reasonably
expected to, and is not reasonably likely to, adversely affect the
species or stock through effects on annual rates of recruitment or
survival.''
Section 101(a)(5)(D) of the MMPA established an expedited process
by which citizens of the United States can apply for an authorization
to incidentally take marine mammals by harassment. The National Defense
Authorization Act of 2004 (NDAA) (P.L. 108-136) removed the ``small
numbers'' and ``specified geographical region'' limitations and amended
the definition of harassment as it applies to ``military readiness
activities'' to read as follows:
(i) any act that injures or has the significant potential to
injure a marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild [Level A
harassment]; or (ii) any act that disturbs or is likely to disturb a
marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild by causing
disruption of natural behavioral patterns, including, but not
limited to, migration, surfacing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or
sheltering, to a point where such behavioral patterns are abandoned
or significantly altered [Level B harassment].
Summary of Request
Eglin AFB originally petitioned NMFS on February 13, 2003, for an
authorization under section 101(a)(5)(D) of the MMPA for the taking, by
Level B harassment, of several species of marine mammals incidental to
programmatic mission activities within the Eglin Gulf Test and Training
Range (EGTTR). The EGTTR is described as the airspace over the GOM that
is controlled by Eglin AFB. A notice of receipt of Eglin's application
and proposed IHA and request for 30-day public comment was published on
January 23, 2006 (71 FR 3474). A 1-year IHA was subsequently issued to
Eglin AFB for this activity on May 3, 2006 (71 FR 27695, May 12, 2006).
On January 29, 2007, NMFS received a request from Eglin AFB for a
renewal of its IHA, which expired on May 2, 2007. This application
addendum requested revisions to three components of the IHA
requirements: protected species surveys, ramp-up procedures, and sea
state restrictions. A Federal Register notice of receipt of the
application and proposed IHA published on May 30, 2007 (72 FR 29974).
These proposed modifications
[[Page 78319]]
are addressed in detail later in this document (see ``Comments and
Responses'' and ``Modifications to the Mitigation and Monitoring
Requirements'').
A description of Eglin AFB's A-S gunnery activity follows.
Description of Activities
A-S gunnery missions, a ``military readiness activity,'' involve
surface impacts of projectiles and small underwater detonations with
the potential to affect cetaceans that may occur within the EGTTR.
These missions typically involve the use of 25-mm (0.98-in), 40-mm
(1.57-in), and 105-mm (4.13-in) gunnery rounds containing, 0.0662 lb
(30 g), 0.865 lb (392 g), and 4.7 lbs (2.1 kg) of explosive,
respectively. Live rounds must be used to produce a visible surface
splash that must be used to ``score'' the round (the impact of inert
rounds on the sea surface would not be detected). The U.S. Air Force
(USAF) has developed a 105-mm training round (TR) that contains less
than 10 percent of the amount of explosive material (0.35 lb; 0.16 kg)
as compared to the ``Full-Up'' (FU) 105-mm (4.13 in) round. The TR was
developed as one method to mitigate effects on marine life during
nighttime A-S gunnery exercises when visibility at the water surface is
poor. However, the TR cannot be used in daytime since the amount of
explosive material is insufficient to be detected from the aircraft.
Water ranges within the EGTTR that are typically used for the
gunnery operations are located in the GOM offshore from the Florida
Panhandle (areas W-151A, W-151B, W-151C, and W-151D as shown in Figure
1-2 in Eglin's 2003 application). Data indicate that W-151A (Figure 1-3
in Eglin's application) is the most frequently used water range due to
its proximity to Hurlburt Field, but activities may occur anywhere
within the EGTTR.
As required under the 2006 IHA, the AC-130 gunship aircraft was to
conduct at least two complete orbits at a minimum safe airspeed around
a prospective target area at a maximum altitude of 1,500 ft (457 m).
Based on an amendment requested by Eglin AFB and implemented here for
safety reasons, NMFS recommends an operational altitude of
approximately 4,500 to 10,000 ft (1,372-3,048 m). Ascent occurs over a
10-15 minute period. Eglin AFB has noted that the search area for these
orbits ensures that no vessels (or protected species) are within an
area of 5 nm (9.3 km) of the target. The AC-130 continues orbiting the
selected target point as it climbs to the mission-testing altitude.
During the low altitude orbits and the climb to testing altitude,
aircraft crew visually scan the sea surface within the aircraft's orbit
circle for the presence of vessels and protected species. Primary
responsibility for the surface scan is on the flight crew in the
cockpit and personnel stationed in the tail observer bubble and
starboard viewing window. The AC-130's optical and electronic sensors
are also employed for target clearance. If any marine mammals are
detected within the AC-130's orbit circle, either during initial
clearance or after commencement of live firing, the aircraft will
relocate to another target area and repeat the clearance procedures. A
typical distance from the coast for this activity is at least 15 mi (24
km).
When offshore, the crews can scan a 5-nm (9.3-km) radius around the
potential impact area to ensure it is clear of surface craft, marine
mammals, and sea turtles. Scanning is accomplished using radar, all-
light television (TV), infrared sensors (IR), and visual means. An
alternative area would be selected if any cetaceans or vessels were
detected within a 5-nm (9.3 km) search area. Once the scan is
completed, Mk-25 flares are dropped and the firing sequence is
initiated.
A typical gunship mission lasts approximately 5 hr without
refueling and 6 hr when air-to-air refueling is accomplished. A typical
mission includes: (1) 30 min for take off and to perform airborne
sensor alignment, align electro-optical sensors (IR and TV) to heads-up
display; (2) 1.5 to 2 hr of dry fire (no ordnance expended) and
includes transition time; (3) 1.5 to 2 hr of live fire, and includes
clearing the area and transiting to and from the range (actual firing
activities typically do not exceed 30 min); (4) 1 hr air-to-air
refueling, if and when performed; and (5) 30 min of transition work
(take-offs, approaches, and landings-pattern work).
The guns are fired during the live-fire phase of the mission. The
actual firing can last from 30 min to 1.5 hr but is typically completed
in 30 min. The number and type of A-S gunnery munitions deployed during
a mission varies with each type of mission flown. In addition to the
25-, 40-, and 105-mm rounds, marking flares are also deployed as
targets. All guns are fired at a specific target in the water, usually
an Mk-25 flare, starting with the lowest caliber ordnance or action
with the least impact and proceeding to greater caliber sizes. To
establish the test target area, two Mk-25 flares are deployed into the
center of the 5-nm (9.3-km) radius cleared area (visually clear of
aircraft, ships, and surface marine species) on the water's surface.
The flare's burn time normally lasts 10 to 20 min but could be much
less if actually hit with one of the ordnance projectiles; however,
some flares have burned as long as 40 min. Live fires are a continuous
event with pauses during the firing usually well under a minute and
rarely from 2 to 5 min. Firing pauses would only exceed 10 min if
surface boat traffic or marine protected species caused the mission to
relocate; if aircraft, gun, or targeting system problems existed; or if
more flares needed to be deployed. The Eglin Safety Office has
described the gunnery missions as having 95-percent containment with a
99-percent confidence level within a 5-m (16.4-ft) area around the
established flare target test area.
Live-fire Event: 25-mm Round
The 25-mm (0.98-in) firing event in a typical mission includes
approximately 500 to 1000 rounds. These rounds are fired in short
bursts. These bursts last approximately 2-3 s with approximately 100
rounds per burst. Based on the very tight target area and extremely
small miss distance, these bursts of rounds all enter the water within
a 5-m (16.4-ft) area. Therefore, when calculations of the marine mammal
Zone of Impact (ZOI) and take estimates are made later in this document
for the 25-mm rounds, calculations will be based on the total number of
rounds fired per year divided by 100.
Live-fire Event: 40-mm Round
The 40-mm (1.57 in) firing event of a typical mission includes
approximately 10 s with approximately 20 rounds per burst. Based on the
very tight target area and extremely small ``miss'' distance, these
bursts of rounds all enter the water within a 5-m (16.4 ft) area.
Therefore, when calculations of the marine mammal ZOI and take
estimates are made later in this document for the 40-mm rounds,
calculations will be based on the total number of rounds fired per year
divided by 20.
Live-fire Event: 105-mm Round
The 105-mm firing event of a typical mission includes approximately
20 rounds. These rounds are not fired in bursts, but as single shots.
The 105-mm firing event lasts approximately 5 min with approximately
two rounds per minute. Due to the single firing event of the 105-mm
round, the peak pressure of each single 105-mm round is measured at a
given distance (90 m (295 ft)) for the 105mm TR and 216 m (709 ft) for
the 105mm FU).
[[Page 78320]]
As described in Eglin's 2003 application, gunnery testing in this
request includes historical baseline yearly amounts in addition to
proposed nighttime gunnery missions. Daytime gunnery testing uses the
105-mm FU round and nighttime gunnery training is proposed using the
105-mm TR. The number of 105-mm rounds including nighttime operations
would amount to 1,742. As shown in detail in Tables 1 and 2, Eglin
proposes to conduct a total of 28 daytime missions and 263 nighttime
missions annually, expending 3,832 rounds in daytime and 30,802 rounds
nighttime (242 105-mm FU and 1,500 rounds would be the 105-mm TR).
Comments and Responses
A notice of receipt of Eglin AFB's application for an incidental
take authorized under section 101(a)5)(D) of the MMPA and request for
30-day public comment on the application and the proposed IHA was
published on May 30, 2007 (72 FR 29974). During the 30-day public
comment period, NMFS received comments from the Marine Mammal
Commission (the Commission) and a member of the public.
Comment 1: A member of the public noted that it is not ``incidental
at all to kill whales, dolphins, and other marine life by firing flares
and bombs at them.''
Response: Eglin AFB proposes to conduct air-to-surface gunnery
exercises, a military readiness activity. Eglin does not fire flares,
gunnery rounds, or bombs at marine mammals, but instead prevents injury
or mortality to marine mammals by implementing mitigation measures. In
order to reduce the probability of injuring or harassing a marine
mammal that may be in the area where gunnery exercises occur, Eglin AFB
will implement a suite of mitigation and monitoring measures as
described in this document. For example, Eglin AFB will cease A-S
gunnery exercises if marine mammals are detected within a 5-nm (9.8 km)
radius of the target area. These measures are described later in this
document.
Table 1. Summary of Daytime Gunnery Testing Operations in the EGTTR
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Baseline Quantity of Number of Number of
Test Area Category Expendable Condition Expendables Missions Events
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W-151A GUN 105 mm HE LIVE 128 6 18
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.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 1,275 1 1
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.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 536 6 18
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W-151B GUN 105 mm HE LIVE 46 2 6
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 294 1 1
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.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 146 1 3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W-151C GUN 105 mm HE LIVE 10 1 3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 142 1 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 50 1 3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W-151D GUN 105 mm HE LIVE 39 2 6
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 567 1 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 198 2 6
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W-151S GUN 105 mm HE LIVE 19 1 3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 283 1 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 99 1 3
Total .......... ............... ........... 3,832 28 74
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Table 2. Summary of Nighttime Gunnery Training Operations in the EGTTR
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Number of Number of
Test Area Category Expendable Condition Alt. 3 Quantity Missions Events
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W-151A GUN 105 mm TR LIVE 902 45 135
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.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 7,864 8 8
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.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 9,811 102 306
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W-151B GUN 105 mm TR LIVE 255 13 39
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 1,452 2 2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 3,023 31 93
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W-151C GUN 105 mm TR LIVE 197 9 36
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[[Page 78321]]
.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 2,301 2 2
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.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 2,302 24 72
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W-151D GUN 105 mm TR LIVE 133 7 21
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.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 830 1 1
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.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 1,583 16 48
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W-151S GUN 105 mm TR LIVE 13 1 3
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.......... 25 mm HEI LIVE 54 1 1
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.......... 40 mm HEI LIVE 82 1 3
Total .......... ............... ........... 30,802 263 770
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The MMPA authorizes the taking of marine mammals provided the
taking is incidental to conducting the otherwise lawful activity. In
this case, the USAF has obtained a permit (called an IHA under section
101(a)(5)(D) of the MMPA or a Letter of Authorization (LOA) under
section 101(a)(5)(A) of the MMPA) to take marine mammals incidental to
military readiness activities. This process was explained earlier in
this document.
Comment 2: The member of the public continues that the awful aim of
these alleged military people is shown by the recent firing of a flare
at Warren Grove firing range recently that burned 17,000 acres of the
New Jersey Pinelands. That shows the inaccuracy of their aim. The
commenter states that ``Regarding the statements about the care they
will take, they told us that before they bombed the school near Warren
Grove gunnery range too. They set fires there with another mistake
about 5 years ago that burned 14,000 acres. These alleged mistakes on
killing and environmental destruction happen far too often with our
military.''
Response: The commenter is referring to incidents that occurred at
the New Jersey Air National Guard base at Warren Grove, NJ. Information
on these incidents is available through Wikipedia, GlobalSecurity and
other Internet sites. Accidents at this military base are not related
to Eglin AFB's offshore activity in the GOM. As mentioned previously,
the Eglin AFB Safety Office has described the gunnery missions as
having 95-percent containment with a 99-percent confidence level within
a 5-m (16.4-ft) area around the established flare target test area. As
a result, NMFS believes that no marine mammals will be killed or
seriously injured as a result of Eglin AFB's A-S gunnery exercises.
Comment 3: The Commission recommends that NMFS issue the requested
authorization, provided that the applicant be required to conduct all
practicable monitoring and mitigation measures that reasonably can be
expected to protect the potentially affected marine mammal species from
serious injury.
Response: NMFS has determined that the mitigation measures proposed
by Eglin AFB and required by NMFS under a new IHA for the A-S Gunnery
exercises will protect marine mammals from any injury or mortality and
will reduce Level B harassment impacts to the lowest level practicable.
Comment 4: The Commission recommends that NMFS should require that
the applicant's annual report of activities include a detailed
assessment of the effectiveness of sensor-based monitoring in detecting
marine mammals and sea turtles in the area of operations.
Response: NMFS agrees and has requested this information as part of
its annual monitoring report.
Comment 5: The Commission recommends that NMFS should require the
applicant to provide additional information to support its request for
the revision of sea state restrictions.
Response: NMFS does not agree that additional information is needed
at this time. NMFS points out that a mitigation requirement for not
conducting an activity in a sea state greater than 3 (in some cases,
3.5) is standard for vessel and aircraft using marine mammal observers.
However, in the IHA application, Eglin AFB makes clear that it would be
difficult for Eglin AFB to conduct operations with a limitation of a
sea state of 3 or less. As Eglin AFB explains in their current IHA
application, sea state 4 encompasses wind speed up to a maximum of 16
knots (18 mph). Under these conditions, whitecaps are fairly frequent
on the sea surface, but sea spray does not occur. Sea spray, whitecaps,
and large waves can decrease the effectiveness of IR detection.
However, marine species can usually be observed in weather conditions
that allow observation of the target flare. One must remember that
visual observations are enhanced, especially at night, by use of the
AN/AAQ-26 infrared detection equipment in concert with the All-Light
TV, which are the primary sensors utilized to clear an over-water
range. Therefore, because Eglin AFB relies principally on electronic
detection instrumentation and less on visual observations, an increase
in sea state from 3 to 4 is unlikely to compromise mitigation
effectiveness or result in the probability of increased harassment,
injury or mortality to marine mammals.
Comment 6: The Commission reiterates its view that an across-the-
board definition of temporary threshold shift (TTS) as constituting no
more than Level B harassment inappropriately dismisses possible injury
and biologically significant behavioral changes that may occur if an
animal's hearing is compromised, even temporarily.
Response: This issue has been addressed several times by NMFS in
the past (see for example 70 FR 48675, August 19, 2005; and 66 FR
22450, May 4, 2001). As stated in those documents, the best scientific
information available concludes that TTS is not an auditory injury, but
is a temporary physiological reaction on the part of mammals to avoid
an injury. The Commission, however, argues for considering TTS as both
Level A harassment and Level B
[[Page 78322]]
harassment based on conjecture on what might occur if a marine mammal
with compromised hearing was at a disadvantage for survival. As noted
previously, it is likely that marine mammals evolved certain behavioral
responses to address natural loud noises in the environment (for
example, billions of lightning strikes per year on the ocean at about
260 dB peak) by changes in conspecific spatial separation. For a more
detailed analysis of why TTS is not considered Level A harassment,
please refer to the Federal Register citations provided here. You may
also refer to Southall et al. (2007) for information on this subject.
Comment 7: With regard to estimates of potential take, the
Commission states that NMFS appears to assume that nine of ten animals
that are exposed to sounds loud enough to temporarily deafen them would
not be otherwise disturbed. The Commission believes that the literature
on marine mammals contains considerable evidence that marine mammals
will exhibit significant changes in their behavioral patterns in
response to sounds much less intense than those required to cause TTS.
Response: First, NMFS cautions against using incorrect terminology.
Marine mammals subject to TTS are not ``deafened,'' even temporarily.
Instead, marine mammals with TTS have a decrease in hearing sensitivity
that may last from a few seconds to several hours, depending upon
several factors. That does not mean that they cannot hear, only that
they may not perceive those quieter sounds that are below this
temporary hearing threshold. Humans may incur with same temporary
phenomenon when using iPods and attending loud sporting events or
concerts.
Second, for Eglin AFB's air-to-surface gunnery activity, Eglin and
NMFS have calculated estimates for behavioral responses by marine
mammals at levels lower than TTS. In the case of the A-S gunnery
exercises, this is due to multiple detonations and potential marine
mammal exposures by the gunnery activity. These calculations are
provided later in this document. However, in other applications, when
there are only single detonations (such as in Eglin AFB's Precision
Strike Weapon and the U.S. Navy shock trials), it is unlikely that
marine mammals would have a significant behavioral response (but may
have a response due to TTS, which has been accounted for) to the single
detonation. For more information on this subject, NMFS recommends
interested readers review Appendices C and D of the Navy's 2008 Final
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the MESA VERDE shock trial.
The Navy's Final EIS is available for viewing or downloading at: http://www.mesaverdeeis.com.
Comment 8: The Commission recommends that NMFS either provide a
rational explanation for what appears to be an assumption that marine
mammals would have to experience sound levels well above that required
to cause TTS before they would experience a behavioral disturbance or
revise its estimates of the number of animals to be taken by behavioral
disturbance to a more realistic number.
Response: NMFS believes that the Commission is referring to Table 1
in the earlier Federal Register notice (and Table 11 in this Federal
Register notice) wherein Eglin AFB and NMFS have provided estimates for
Level A harassment (injury), Level B harassment (TTS) and Level B
harassment (behavioral harassment). For Level B harassment, we have
provided those estimates using the dual criteria (energy and pressure)
for TTS, but only for pressure for behavioral harassment. As explained
previously, NMFS adopted a dual criterion for TTS Level B harassment,
but has not adopted a dual criterion for non-TTS behavioral responses
by marine mammals. A TTS pressure criterion was added during earlier
shock trial rulemakings (see 87 FR 22450, May 4, 2001) to provide a
more conservative zone for calculating potential TTS exposures when the
explosive or the animal approaches the sea surface (for which cases the
explosive energy is reduced but the peak pressure is not). Originally
established at 12 psi for large charges (such as in the 10,000 lb (4536
kg) shock trials), empirical research now supports a pressure metric of
23 psi, as explained previously (see 70 FR 48675, August 19, 2005). The
23-psi metric for onset TTS was adopted previously by NMFS for this
action and by the U.S. Navy for large detonations (see reference
provided in previous response.) Explanation is provided elsewhere in
this document (and in the proposed IHA notice) on NMFS' incorporation
of 176 dB (SEL) for calculating behavioral responses below TTS.
Therefore, while NMFS believes that one would generally expect the
pressure (dB) threshold for behavioral modification to be lower than
that causing TTS, due to a lack of empirical information and data, a
dual criteria for Level B behavioral harassment cannot be developed.
Later in this document, NMFS has estimated potential Level B
(behavioral) harassment below TTS due to the multiple detonations
occurring as part of this activity. In addition, NMFS plans to
investigate this situation during the development of a proposed rule on
this action and will provide the Commission and the public additional
information at that time.
Comment 9: The Commission recommends that NMFS review and provide
more reasonable justification for its models and assumptions that lead
to the conclusion that no animals will be killed during the course of a
full year of such exercises. The Commission also questions NMFS' method
for estimating the number of animals that may be killed by these
exercises.
Response: This information was provided in the 2006 notice of
issuance of an IHA to Eglin AFB for A-S gunnery exercises (71 FR 27695,
May 12, 2006). NMFS recommends that reviewers of this year's
application refer to that document for additional information. However,
as a result of the Commission's recommendation and to ensure clarity of
its MMPA determinations, NMFS has reprinted those findings in this
document.
Comment 10: The Commission notes that in its response to its
comments on the previous year's request for an IHA (71 FR 27701, May
12, 2006), NMFS suggested that to experience a significant behavioral
disturbance, animals would have to be within 22.1 m (72.5 ft) of the
zone of impact from an aircraft flying at 6,000 ft (1829 m). In this
year's analysis, NMFS indicates that up to 25 animals may be at least
that close, but that none would be killed. It seems hard to imagine
that, either through inaccuracy in firing or confusion on the part of
animals within 22 m (72 ft) (e.g., darting into the zone of impact), no
animals would be killed over the course of a year of such exercises.
For that reason, the Commission recommends that NMFS review and provide
a more reasonable justification for its models and assumptions that
lead to the conclusion that no animals will be killed during the course
of a full year of such exercises.
Response: NMFS has republished in this document several tables on
the calculations for direct physical impact (DPI) that were published
in the cited 2006 Federal Register notice. These tables all indicate
that the potential for mortality is close to non-existent. In the
proposed IHA notice, NMFS published the calculations for estimating the
potential for marine mammals to be harassed, injured or killed as a
result of A-S gunnery exercises. NMFS has not received any comments
from the public or the Commission criticizing the methodology of these
calculations (they are not based on models, but on calculations based
on species/stock
[[Page 78323]]
density, area of impact and number of events as described previously
and later in this document). The hypothesis proposed by the Commission
that animals may dart into the small DPI zone(s) fails to account for
the effectiveness of the mitigation measures required under the IHA.
These measures are analyzed later in this document. Since the usual
area of these live-fire events are in coastal waters, the marine
mammals will likely be detectable electronically to the aircraft
personnel when at firing altitude. As a final note, if marine mammals
have been seriously injured or killed by A-S gunnery exercises in the
past, necropsies of GOM marine mammals stranded on a beach should have
indicated single or multiple wounds caused by gunnery projectiles. NMFS
is unaware of any marine mammals containing the projectiles with a
caliber consistent with that used by Eglin.
Comment 11: The Commission notes that NMFS is proposing to require
that operations be suspended immediately if a dead or seriously injured
marine mammal is found in the vicinity of the operations and the death
or injury could have occurred incidental to the gunnery activities. Any
such suspension should remain in place until NMFS has (1) reviewed the
situation and determined that further mortalities or serious injuries
are unlikely to occur or (2) issued regulations authorizing such takes
under section 101(a)(5)(A) of the MMPA.
Response: NMFS agrees. In the case of Eglin AFB's A-S Gunnery
exercises, if marine mammals are found with injuries from gunnery
rounds matching those used by the AC-130 gunships, NMFS will suspend
Eglin's IHA until such time as (1) another cause for the wound(s) is/
are found to have caused the animal(s) demise; (2) Eglin AFB
reevaluates the A-S gunnery program and adds additional mitigation to
ensure that marine mammals are not seriously injured or killed by
future A-S Gunnery exercises, or (3) Eglin AFB receives an
authorization under section 101(a)(5)(A) of the MMPA. In that latter
regard, irregardless of whether mortality is a possibility, NMFS plans
to issue proposed regulations for Eglin's A-S Gunnery exercises to be
effective upon expiration of this IHA.
Description of Marine Mammals Affected by the Activity
There are 29 species of marine mammals documented as occurring in
Federal waters of the GOM. Of these 29 species of marine mammals,
approximately 21 may be found within the EGTTR. These species are the
Bryde's whale, sperm whale, dwarf sperm whale, pygmy sperm whale,
Atlantic bottlenose dolphin, Atlantic spotted dolphin, pantropical
spotted dolphin, Blainville's beaked whale, Cuvier's beaked whale,
Gervais' beaked whale, Clymene dolphin, spinner dolphin, striped
dolphin, killer whale, false killer whale, pygmy killer whales, Risso's
dolphin, Fraser's dolphin, melon-headed whale, rough-toothed dolphin,
and pilot whale. General information on these species can be found in
Wursig et al. (2000) and in the NMFS Stock Assessment Reports (Waring
et al., 2007). This latter document is available at: http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/publications/tm/tm205/. General information on
Florida manatees, which is not a species under NMFS jurisdiction, can
be found in the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (USFWS, 2001).
Potential Impacts to Marine Mammals
A-S gunnery operations may potentially impact marine mammals at or
near the water surface. Marine mammals could potentially be harassed,
injured or killed by exploding and non-exploding projectiles, and
falling debris (Eglin, 2002 (Final PEA)). However, based on analyses
provided in the Eglin Final PEA, Eglin's Supplemental Information
Request (2003), and NMFS' 2008 EA, NMFS concurs with Eglin that gunnery
exercises are not likely to result in any injury or mortality to marine
mammals.Explosive criteria and thresholds for assessing impacts of
explosions on marine mammals were discussed by NMFS in detail in its
issuance of an IHA for Eglin's Precision Strike Weapon testing activity
(70 FR 48675, August 19, 2005) and are not repeated here. Please refer
to that document for this background information.
Estimation of Take and Impact
Direct Physical Impacts (DPI)
Potential impacts resulting from A-S test operations include DPI
resulting from ordnance. DPI could result from inert bombs, gunnery
ammunition, and shrapnel from live missiles falling into the water.
Marine mammals swimming at the surface could potentially be injured or
killed by projectiles and falling debris if not sighted and firing
discontinued. Mainly due to the comparatively large number of rounds
expended, small arms gunnery operations offers a worst-case scenario
for evaluating DPI of EGTTR operations. Some small-arms gunnery rounds
contain small amounts of explosives, but the majority do not. However,
the possibility of DPI to marine mammals is considered highly unlikely.
Therefore, the risk of injury or mortality is low. The assumptions made
by Eglin AFB for DPI calculations can be found in Eglin's 2002 Final
PEA under the analysis for Alternative 1. Approximately 606 small-arms
gunnery firing events comprise the baseline level of potential DPI
events, as shown here in Table 3.
DPI impacts are only anticipated to affect marine species at or
very near the ocean surface. As a result, in order to calculate
impacts, Eglin used corrected species densities (see Table 4-23 in
Eglin's Final PEA) to reflect the surface interval population, which is
approximately 10 percent of densities calculated for distribution in
the total water column. As shown in Table 4 (and thereby correcting PEA
Table 4-23), the impacts to marine mammals swimming at the surface that
could potentially be injured or killed by projectiles and falling
debris was determined to be an average of 0.2059 marine mammals per
year. However, NMFS believes that the mitigation measures that Eglin
proposes under this action would significantly reduce even these low
levels.
In addition to small arms, Eglin calculated the potential for other
non-explosive items (bombs, missiles, and drones) to impact marine
mammals. The number of annual events expected are 551 bombs, 1,183
missiles, and 99 drones (see Table 5). As shown in Eglin's 2002 Final
PEA and Table 6 in this document, the potential for any DPI to marine
mammals is extremely remote (1 cetacean per 48 yr of activity) and can,
therefore, be discounted.
Similar to non-small arms/non-gunnery DPI impacts, DPI impacts from
gunnery activities may also affect marine mammals in the surface zone.
Again, DPI impacts are anticipated to affect only marine mammals at or
near the ocean surface, and not animals that are submerged at the time.
Accordingly, the density estimates have been adjusted to indicate
surface animals only being potentially affected. Using the firing
methodology explained earlier in this document, Tables 7 and 8
demonstrate that the potential for any DPI from gunnery activities are
extremely remote and can be discounted. Using the largest round (105
mm), it would take approximately 120 yr to impact a marine mammal from
daytime gunnery activities and approximately 27 yr to impact a marine
mammal from nighttime gunnery activities.
[[Page 78324]]
Table 3. EGTTR Air-to-Surface Gunnery/Small Arms Operations as Events
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Activity/EGTTR Event Percentage Number
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Small Arms-50 Cal Ball Events 16.3 percent 99
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Small Arms 5.56 Linked Events 0.8 percent 5
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Small Arms 7.62 mm Ball Events 82.8 percent 502
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total Baseline -Small Caliber 100 percent 606
Events
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 4. Potential Small Arms DPI Impacts (Annual) to Marine Mammal Species
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Density (/ Adjusted Density Impact Zone Area\1\ Animals in Impact Zone Years To Impact 1
Species km\2\) (/km\2\) (km\2\) () Mammal()
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cetaceans 4.381 0.4381 0.047874 2.10E-02 48
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
T&E Cetaceans 0.011 0.0011 0.047874 5.27E-05 18,989
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 5. Non-Small Arms Operations as Events
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Activity/EGTTR Event Percentage Number
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bombs 30.1 percent 551
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Missiles 64.5 percent 1183
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Drones 5.4 percent 99
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total Baseline Non-Small Arms 100 percent 1833
Events
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 6. Potential Non-Small Arms/Non-Gunnery DPI Impacts (Annual) to Marine Mammal Species
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Density (/ Adjusted Density Impact Zone Area\1\ Animals in Impact Zone Years To Impact 1
Species km\2\) (/km\2\) (km\2\) () Mammal()
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cetaceans 4.381 0.4381 0.00688 0.003014128 332
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
T&E Cetaceans 0.011 0.0011 0.0688 0.000007568 132,135
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 7. Potential Daytime Gunnery DPI Impacts (annual) to Marine Cetaceans.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Density (/ Adjusted Density Impact Zone Area Number of Events Animals in Impact Years To Impact 1
Species/shell size km\2\) (/km\2\) (km\2\) () Zone () Animal ()
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cetacea 4.381 0.4381 .00007854 26 .000881198 1,135
(25mm)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cetacea 4.381 0.4381 .00007854 51 .001770311 565
(40mm)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cetacea 4.381 0.4381 .00007854 242 .008326827 120
(105mm)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 8. Potential Nighttime Gunnery DPI Impacts (annual) to Marine Cetaceans.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Density (/ Adjusted Density Impact Zone Area Number of Events Animals in Impact Years To Impact 1
Species/shell size km\2\) (/km\2\) (km\2\) () Zone () Animal ()
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cetacea 4.381 0.4381 .00007854 125 .004287972 233
(25mm)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cetacea 4.381 0.4381 .00007854 723 .024873814 40
(40mm)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cetacea 4.381 0.4381 .00007854 1061 .036507285 27
(105mm)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 78325]]
Marine Mammal Take Estimates from Gunnery Activities
Estimating the impacts to marine mammals from underwater
detonations is difficult due to complexities of the physics of
explosive sound under water and the limited understanding with respect
to hearing in marine mammals. Detailed assessments were made in the
notice for the previous IHA on this action (71 FR 27695, May 12, 2006)
and in this Federal Register notice. These assessments used, and
improved upon, the criteria and thresholds for marine mammal impacts
that were developed for the shock trials of the USS SEAWOLF and the USS
Winston S. Churchill (DDG-81) (Navy, 1998; 2001). The criteria and
thresholds used in those actions were adopted by NMFS for use in
calculating incidental takes from explosives. Criteria for assessing
impacts from Eglin AFB's A-S gunnery exercises include: (1) mortality,
as determined by exposure to a certain level of positive impulse
pressure (expressed as pounds per square inch per millisecond or psi-
msec); (2) injury, both hearing-related and non-hearing related; and
(3) harassment, as determined by a temporary loss of some hearing
ability and behavioral reactions. Similar to the effects from DPI, due
to the small amounts of net explosive weight (NEW) for each of the
rounds fired in the EGTTR and the mitigation measures required to be
implemented by NMFS, mortality resulting from either DPI or the
resulting sounds generated into the water column from detonations was
determined to be highly unlikely and was not considered further by
Eglin AFB or NMFS.
Permanent hearing loss is considered an injury and is termed
permanent threshold shift (PTS). NMFS, therefore, categorizes PTS as
Level A harassment. Temporary loss of hearing ability is termed TTS,
meaning a temporary reduction of hearing sensitivity which abates
following noise exposure. TTS is considered non-injurious and is
categorized as Level B harassment. NMFS recognizes dual criteria for
TTS, one based on peak pressure and one based on the greatest 1/3
octave sound exposure level (SEL) or energy flux density level (EFDL),
with the more conservative (i.e., larger) of the two criteria being
selected for impacts analysis (note: SEL and EFDL are used
interchangeably, but with increasing scientific preference for SEL).
The peak pressure metric used in previous shock trials to represent TTS
was 12 pounds per square inch (psi) which, for the NEW used, resulted
in a zone of possible Level B harassment approximately equal to that
obtained by using a 182 decibel (dB) re 1 microPa2-s, total EFDL/SEL
metric. The 12-psi metric is largely based on anatomical studies and
extrapolations from terrestrial mammal data (see Ketten, 1995; Navy,
1999 (Appendix E, Churchill FEIS; and 70 FR 48675 (August 19, 2005))
for background information). However, the results of a more recent
investigation involving marine mammals suggest that, for small charges,
the 12-psi metric is not an adequate predictor of the onset of TTS.
Finneran et al. (2002) measured TTS in a bottlenose dolphin and a
beluga whale exposed to single underwater impulses produced by a
seismic water gun in San Diego Bay. The water gun was chosen over other
seismic sources, such as air guns, because the impulses contain more
energy at high frequencies where odontocete hearing thresholds are
relatively low (i.e., more sensitive). Hearing thresholds were measured
at 0.4, 4, and 30 kilohertz (kHz). A relatively small and short-term
level of masked TTS (MTTS)(7 dB at 0.4 kHz and 6 dB at 30 kHz) occurred
in the beluga whale at a peak pressure of 160 kilopascals (kPa), which
is equivalent to 23 psi, 226 dB re 1 micro Pa peak-peak pressure, and
186 dB re 1 microPa2-s. The maximum experimental peak pressure exposure
of 207 kPa (30 psi, 228 dB re 1 microPa peak-peak pressure, 188 dB re 1
microPa2-s) did not cause any measurable masked TTS in the bottlenose
dolphin. The results of these field experiments represent the most
current science available for the relationship between peak pressure
and TTS in marine mammals. It is also considered precautionary for this
project since the bottlenose dolphin did not incur an MTTS at the
higher level of 30 psi. Therefore, until additional information becomes
available, 23 psi is considered an appropriate and conservative metric
for predicting the onset of pressure-related TTS from small explosive
charges.
Documented behavioral reactions occur at noise levels below those
considered to cause TTS in marine mammals (Finneran et al., 2002;
Schlundt et al., 2000; Finneran and Schlundt, 2004). In controlled
experimental situations, behavioral effects are typically defined as
alterations of trained behaviors. Behavioral effects in wild animals
are more difficult to define but may include decreased ability to feed,
communicate, migrate, or reproduce. Abandonment of an area due to
repeated noise exposure is also considered a behavioral effect.
Analyses in subsequent sections of this document refer to such
behavioral effects as ``sub-TTS Level B harassment.'' Schlundt et al.
(2000) exposed bottlenose dolphins and beluga whales to various pure-
tone sound frequencies and intensities in order to measure underwater
hearing thresholds. Masking is considered to have occurred because of
ambient noise environment in which the experiments took place. Sound
levels were progressively increased until behavioral alterations were
noted (at which point the onset of TTS was presumed). It was found that
decreasing the sound intensity by 4 to 6 dB greatly decreased the
occurrence of anomalous behaviors. The lowest sound pressure levels,
over all frequencies, at which altered behaviors were observed, ranged
from 178 to 193 dB re 1 micro Pa for the bottlenose dolphins and from
180 to 196 dB re 1 micro Pa for the beluga whales. Thus, it is
reasonable to consider that sub-TTS (behavioral) effects occur at
approximately 6 dB below the TTS-inducing sound level, or at
approximately 176 dB in the greatest 1/3 octave band EFDL/SEL.
Table 9 summarizes the relevant thresholds for levels of noise that
may result in Level A (injury) harassment, Level B (TTS) behavioral
harassment or Level B (sub-TTS) behavioral harassment to marine
mammals. Mortality and injury thresholds are designed to be
conservative by considering the impacts that would occur to the most
sensitive life stage (e.g., a dolphin calf). Table 10 provides the
estimated ZOI radii for the EGTTR ordnance. At this time, there is no
empirical data or information that would allow NMFS to establish a peak
pressure criterion for sub-TTS behavioral disruption (see response to
comment 8).
As mentioned previously, the EGTTR live fire events are continuous
events with pauses during the firing usually well under a minute and
rarely from 2 to 5 min. Live fire typically occurs within a 30 min time
frame, including all ordnance fired: 25 mm (Phase I), 40 mm (Phase II),
and 10 mm (Phase III), and where the 105-mm ordnance are fired as
separate rounds with up to 30-s intervals, the 25-mm and the 40-mm are
often fired in multiple bursts. These bursts include multiple rounds
(25 to 100) within a 10- to 20-s time frame. Eglin notes that even if
animal avoidance once firing commences is not considered, the average
swim speed (1.5 m/s) of an animal would not allow sufficient time for
new animals to re-enter the Level B harassment ZOI (23 psi) within the
time frame of a single burst. As such, only the peak pressure of a
single round is measured per burst and experienced at a given distance
(49
[[Page 78326]]
m (161 ft; Phase I), 122 m (400 ft; Phase II)).
Table 9. EGTTR Criteria and Thresholds for Impact of Explosive Noise on Marine Mammals
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Criterion Criterion Definition Threshold
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level A Harassment-Auditory Injury 50% of Animals Exposed Would 205 dB Total EFDL
Experience Ear-Drum Rupture,
Resulting in Approximately 30% PTS
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level B Harassment Temporary Threshold Shift (NMFS Dual 23 PSI Peak Pressure
Criterion)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level B Harassment Temporary Threshold Shift (NMFS Dual 182 dB 1/3 Octave Band EFDL
Criterion)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level B Harassment Sub-TTS Behavioral Disruption 176 dB 1/3 Octave Band EFDL
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 10. Estimated Range for a Zone of Impact (ZOI) Distance for the EGTTR Ordnance.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level B Harassment Non- Level B Harassment Non- Level B Harassment-Non-
Expendable Level A Harassment- Injurious (182 dB) EFD For injurious (23 psi) For TTS injurious (176 dB) EFD For
Injurious(205 dB) EFD (m) TTS (m) (m) Behavior (m)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
105 mm FU 0.79 11.1 216 22.1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
105-mm TR 0.22 3.0 90 6.0
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40-mm HE 0.33 4.7 122 9.4
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25-mm HE 0.11 1.3 49 2.6
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FU=Full-up; TR=Training Round; HE=High Explosive
For daytime firing it is assumed that the average swim speed per
cetacean is approximately 3 knots or 1.5 m/sec. As a conservative
scenario, Eglin assumes that there is one animal present within or near
the 216-m ZOI (FU 105-mm round ZOI) which may be potentially ensonified
within the 23-psi TTS exposure at the time that the 105-mm live firing
begins. Density distributions have assumed an even distribution of
approximately 4.38 animals/km2 or approximately 500 m (1640 ft) apart
(all species) for the take estimate analysis. At this density
distribution and typical swim speed, the next available cetacean would
approach the perimeter of the 216-m (709 ft) ZOI (23-psi TTS ZOI) in
approximately 5.5 min, assuming a straight line path. With live-fire
events for the 105-mm occurring at a rate of approximately 2 rounds/
min, nearly one half (or 10 rounds) of the total 105-mm rounds (20
rounds) would potentially be expended within this 5.5 min time frame.
If the concept of marine mammal avoidance of an area once firing
commences is not considered, an average swim speed of 1.5 m/s (4.9 ft/
s) would allow sufficient time for new animals to re-enter the 23-psi
TTS impact area. Allowing for a potential 2 min break in firing after
10 rounds are expended, it is, therefore, conservative and reasonable
to assume that nearly 3 to 4 individual animals could be exposed to the
23-psi TTS sound level during a typical 20 round firing event.
Therefore, the ZOI and Level B harassment take estimate calculations
are based on the total number of rounds fired per year divided by 5, or
approximately 20 percent. This approach assumes that although single
animals may be ensonified more than once due to the time required to
exit the 23 psi TTS ZOI, animals are not considered to be ``taken''
more than once for the purposes of estimating take levels.
Similarly, as a conservative approach for nighttime firing, Eglin
assumes that there is one animal present within or near the 90-m (295-
ft) ZOI (105-mm TR ZOI) which may be potentially ensonified within the
23-psi TTS exposure zone at the time that the 105-mm round live firing
phase begins. Density distributions have assumed an even distribution
of approximately 4.38 animals/km2 (all species) for the approach of
impact analyses for estimation of take. At this density distribution
and typical swim speed, the next available cetacean would approach the
perimeter of the 90-m (295-ft) ZOI (23-psi TTS ZOI) in approximately
5.5 min or the same time as with the 216-m ZOI (used for the 105-mm
FU). The difference is the amount of time it takes the animal to exit
the ZOI or in other words, how long the animal resides within the ZOI
on a straight line path. With live fire events of the 105-mm round
occurring at a rate of approximately 2 rounds per min, nearly one half
(or 10 rounds) of the total 105-mm rounds (20 rounds) would potentially
be expended within this 5.5-min time frame. If the concept of marine
mammal avoidance of an area once firing commences is not considered, an
average swim speed (1.5 m/s) of animals would allow sufficient time for
new animals to re-enter the 23-psi TTS impact area. Allowing for a
potential 2-min break in firing after 10 rounds are expended, it is
conservative and reasonable to assume that nearly 3 to 4 individual
animals may be potentially exposed to the 23-psi TTS sound level during
a typical 20 round firing event. Therefore, the ZOI and take estimate
calculations are based on the total number of rounds fired per year
divided by 5, or approximately 20 percent. This approach assumes that,
although single animals may be ensonified more than once due to the
time required to exit the 23-psi TTS ZOI, individual animals are not
considered to be ``taken'' more than once for the purposes of
estimating take levels.
Based on this discussion, Table 11 in this Federal Register
document provides Eglin AFB's estimates of the annual number of marine
mammals, by species, potentially taken by Level B harassment, by the
gunnery mission noise. It should be noted that these estimates are
derived without
[[Page 78327]]
consideration of the effectiveness of Eglin AFB's proposed mitigation
measures (except use of the TR), which are discussed in the next
section.
Mitigation Measures
Under the previous IHA, Eglin AFB employed a number of mitigation
measures in an effort to substantially decrease the number of animals
potentially affected. These mitigation measures are discussed first.
The modifications to the mitigation measures requested by Eglin AFB as
part of its IHA request for renewal for this IHA will follow in this
document.
Development of the Training Round
The largest type of ammunition used during typical gunnery missions
is the 105-mm (4.13-in) round containing 4.7 lbs (2.1 kg) of high
explosive (HE). This is several times more HE than that found in the
next largest round (40 mm/1.57 in). As a mitigation technique, the USAF
developed a 105-mm TR that contains only 0.35 lb (0.16 kg) of HE. The
TR was developed to dramatically reduce the risk of harassment at night
and Eglin AFB anticipates a 96 percent reduction in impact by using the
105-mm TR.
Visual Mitigation
Areas to be used in gunnery missions are visually monitored for
marine mammal presence from the AC-130 aircraft prior to commencement
of the mission. If the presence of one or more marine mammals is
detected, the target area will be avoided. In addition, monitoring will
continue during the mission. If marine mammals are detected at any
time, the mission will halt immediately and relocate as necessary or
suspended until the marine mammal has left the area. Daytime and
nighttime visual monitoring will be supplemented with IR and TV
monitoring. As nighttime visual monitoring is generally considered to
be ineffective at any height, the EGTTR missions will incorporate the
TR.
Table 11. Yearly Estimated Number of Marine Mammals Affected by Gunnery Mission Noise
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level B Harassment
Adjusted Density Level A Harassment Level B Harassment Non-Injurious 176
Species (/km\2\) Injurious 205 dB* Non-Injurious 182 dB* EFD For
EFD For Ear Rupture dB* EFD For TTS Behavior
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bryde's whale 0.007 <0.001 0.010 0.041
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sperm whale 0.011 <0.001 0.016 0.064
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dwarf/pygmy sperm whale 0.024 <0.001 0.035 0.139
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cuvier's beaked whale 0.10 <0.001 0.015 0.058
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mesoplodon spp. 0.019 <0.001 0.028 0.110
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pygmy killer whale 0.030 <0.001 0.044 0.174
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
False killer whale 0.026 <0.001 0.038 0.151
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Short-finned pilot whale 0.027 <0.001 0.039 0.157
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rough-toothed dolphin 0.028 <0.001 0.041 0.163
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bottlenose dolphin 0.810 0.006 1.177 4.706
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Risso's dolphin 0.113 0.001 0.164 0.657
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Atlantic spotted dolphin 0.677 0.005 0.984 3.934
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pantropical spotted dolphin 1.077 0.008 1.565 6.258
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Striped dolphin 0.237 0.002 0.344 1.377
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Spinner dolphin 0.915 0.007 1.330 5.316
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Clymene dolphin 0.253 0.002 0.368 1.470
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Unidentified dolphin** 0.053 <0.001 0.077 0.308
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Unidentified whale 0.008 <0.001 0.012 0.046
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
All marine mammals 4.325 0.032 6.29 25.13
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* dB = dB re 1 microPa.s
** Bottlenose dolphin/Atlantic spotted dolphin
Ramp-Up
In 2006, Eglin incorporated a ramp-up procedure by beginning with
the smallest round (or the round having least impact) and proceeding to
subsequently larger size rounds (in this case the lowest caliber of
munition up to the 105-mm FU round). Theoretically, this allows animals
to perceive steadily increasing sounds and to react, if necessary.
Alerting animals in advance of injurious sound waves by transmitting
low-power ``warning'' signals a short time before the action provides a
safeguard where there is a potential for the risk of injury.
[[Page 78328]]
Other Mitigation
Under the 2006 IHA, NMFS required additional mitigation measures to
protect marine life. These requirements were:
(1) Test firing will be conducted only when sea surface conditions
are sea state 3.5 or less on the Beaufort scale.
(2) Prior to each firing event, the aircraft crew will conduct a
visual survey of the 5-nm (9.3-km) wide prospective target area to
attempt to sight any protected species that may be present (e.g.,
marine mammals, sea turtles, and Sargassum rafts). The AC-130 gunship
will conduct at least two complete orbits at a minimum safe airspeed
around a prospective target area at a maximum altitude of 1,500 ft (457
m), with a recommended altitude of 1,000 ft (305 m). Provided protected
species are not detected, the AC-130 can then continue orbiting the
selected target point as it climbs to the mission testing altitude.
During the low altitude orbits and the climb to testing altitude, the
aircraft crew will visually scan the sea surface within the aircraft's
orbit circle for the presence of listed and non-listed marine mammals.
Primary emphasis for the surface scan will be upon the flight crew in
the cockpit and personnel stationed in the tail observer bubble and
starboard viewing window. The AC-130's optical and electronic sensors
will also be employed for target clearance. If any marine mammals are
detected within the AC-130's orbit circle, either during initial
clearance or after commencement of live firing, the aircraft will
relocate to another target and repeat the clearance procedures. If
multiple firing events occur within the same flight, these clearance
procedures will precede each event.
(3) The aircrews of the A-S gunnery missions will initiate location
and surveillance of a suitable firing site immediately after exiting
U.S. territorial waters (less than or equal to 12 nm (22 km)). This
would potentially restrict most gunnery activities to the shallower
continental shelf waters of the GOM where marine mammal densities are
typically lower, and thus potentially avoid the slope waters where the
more sensitive species (e.g., endangered sperm whales) typically
reside.
(4) Observations will be accomplished using all-light TV, IR
sensors, and visual means for at least 60 min prior to each exercise.
(5) Aircrews will utilize visual, night vision goggles, and other
onboard sensors to search for marine mammals while performing area
clearance procedures during night-time pre-mission activities.
(6) If any marine mammals are sighted during pre-mission surveys or
during the mission, activities will be immediately halted until the
area is clear of all marine mammals for 60 min or the mission location
relocated and resurveyed.
Monitoring and Reporting
The Incidental Take Statement in NMFS' Biological Opinion on this
action required certain monitoring measures to protect marine life.
NMFS also imposed these same requirements, as well as additional ones,
under Eglin AFB's 2006 IHA as they related to marine mammals. They
included:
(1) Development and implementation of a marine species observer-
training program in coordination with NMFS. This program will provide
expertise to Eglin's testing and training community in the
identification of protected marine species during surface and aerial
mission activities in the GOM. Additionally, the A-S gunnery mission
aircrews will participate in the species observation training. As a
result, designated crew members will be selected to receive training as
protected species observers. Observers will receive training in
protected species survey and identification techniques through a NMFS-
approved training program.
(2) Aircrews will initiate the post-mission clearance procedures
beginning at the operational altitude of approximately 15,000 to 20,000
ft (4,572 to 6,096 m) elevation, and initiating a spiraling descent
down to an observation altitude of approximately 1,500 ft (457 m)
elevation. Rates of descent will occur over a 3 to 5 min time frame.
(3) Eglin will track their use of the EGTTR for test firing
missions and protected species observations, through the use of mission
reporting forms.
(4) A-S gunnery missions will coordinate with next-day flight
activities to provide supplemental post-mission observations for marine
mammals in the operations area of the previous day.
(5) A summary annual report of marine mammal observations and A-S
activities will be submitted to the NMFS Southeast Regional Office
(SERO) and the Office of Protected Resources either at the time of a
request for renewal of an IHA or 90 days after expiration of the
current IHA if a new IHA is not requested.
(6) If any dead or injured marine mammals are observed or detected
prior to testing, or injured or killed during live fire, a report must
be made to the NMFS by the following business day.
(7) Any unauthorized takes of marine mammals (i.e., injury or
mortality) must be immediately reported to the NMFS represent-ative and
to the respective stranding network representative.
Modifications to the 2006 Mitigation and Monitoring Requirements
As of October 27, 2006, two A-S gunnery missions have been
attempted (one of the missions was ultimately aborted due to sea
state). As a result of flying live missions over the ocean, aircrews
have requested a modification to three components of the 2006 IHA
requirements. These components are: (1) protected species surveys, (2)
ramp-up procedures, and (3) sea state restrictions.
Protected Species Surveys-Altitude and Equipment
Currently, pre-mission surveys for marine mammals and other
protected species must be commenced at a maximum altitude of 1,500 ft
(457 m)(with 1,000 ft (305 m) recommended) during the day and at 2,000
ft (610 m)(1,500 ft (457 m) recommended) at night. Visual scans, as
well as all applicable instruments, are to be used to survey for
protected species at the water surface. Aircrews have reported that
these altitudes are not safe, and that the onboard instrumentation used
for surveys actually performs better at a higher altitude.
The propeller-driven AC-130 aircraft, which is used for all A-S
gunnery missions, is among the largest and heaviest in the USAF,
weighing up to approximately 150,000 lbs (68,040 kg) depending on
equipment configuration. If an emergency situation, such as a
malfunction of one or more engines, occurred during the protected
species surveys, the aircraft would likely lose altitude initially. The
AC-130 does not perform well with less than a full compliment of
engines. At 1,000 to 2,000 ft (305 to 610 m), the pilots would have
little time to recover before striking the water surface, which would
result in potential human fatalities and certain loss of the aircraft.
The AC-130 is typically flown at a minimum altitude of 4,500 ft (1372
m). Eglin AFB and NMFS note that the 2004 NDAA amendments to the MMPA
explicitly require consideration of personnel safety during military
readiness activities.
AC-130 gunships are equipped with low-light TV cameras and ANIAAQ-
26 Infrared Detection Sets (IDS). The TV cameras operate in a range of
electromagnetic radiation of 532 to 980 nanometers (visible and near-
visible light), and the IDS system operates in the IR portion of 7.5 to
11.7
[[Page 78329]]
micrometers. IR systems are capable of detecting differences in
temperature from thermal energy (heat) radiated from living bodies, or
from reflected and scattered thermal energy. In contrast to typical
night-vision devices, visible light is not necessary for object
detection. IR systems are equally effective during day or night use.
The ANIAAQ-26 IDS system produces a composite video signal which is
displayed on an onboard television monitor. The IDS provides imagery
and accurate line-of-sight information for an operator to detect,
acquire, identify, and track targets. Additional capabilities include
providing imagery suitable for reconnaissance and low-level navigation.
The IDS is capable of detecting very small thermal differences (the
exact thermal sensitivity is classified). Three fields-of-view (FOV)
are available for the IDS. All are typically used during a mission to
survey the area and acquire targets. These are:
Wide FOV (1.80 magnification) aides in low altitude
flight, navigation, and area search, and also provides sufficient
resolution to recognize typical terrain features such as roads, rivers,
and bridges.
Medium FOV (10.8 magnification) provides for immediate
target area orientation and target detection.
Narrow FOV (42.9 magnification) provides small target
identification, target recognition, and precise line-of-sight angular
adjustments. A 2X FOV (85.80 magnification) provides electronic
magnification of the Narrow FOV.
The IDS provides pointing information regarding its optical line-
of-sight, and features a continuous 360-degree azimuth Field of Regard
(FOR) and +60 degree up-look to -105 degree down-look elevation FOR.
The line-of-sight is inertial-stabilized with regard to airplane
angular motions and is directed to pointing angles via programmed
commands, operator commands, or position commands from the avionics
systems.
IR and low-light TV systems are used during both daytime and
nighttime missions (ambient light is sufficient for the TV system at
night). The IDS is the primary detection system and is used during all
AC-130 gunship missions. Low-light TV and visual surveys are used to
supplement the IDS system as appropriate. The magnification of the TV
system is comparable to that of the IDS. Although the IDS is capable of
detecting infrared emissions at altitudes in excess of 12,500 ft (3810
m), an altitude range of 6,000 to 9,000 ft (1829 to 2743 m) affords the
optimal slant range for overall sensor performance and target
orientation.
The sensor suite is considered superior to the human eye for
detecting targets on the water surface, even at altitudes as low as
1,000 ft (305 m). This is particularly true for night observations. IR
systems have been used to detect whales and dolphins (Baldacci et al.,
2005). Although the central portion of cetacean bodies are insulated
with blubber, peripheral areas such as the flukes and fins are
relatively poorly insulated. These areas may be detected thermally.
Also, the movement of a cetacean's body at the surface causes heat to
be radiated at different angles, resulting in an apparent temperature
difference that can be detected by IR sensors. Additional areas of
thermal discrimination include the blowhole, the blow, and areas of
water disturbance where water of different temperatures is mixed.
However, high humidity, rain, fog, high waves, and whitecap conditions
can decrease the effectiveness of IR detection.
Figure 1 in Eglin's January 29, 2007 renewal request illustrates
examples of all FOVs for the IDS system, as an operator would see them
on a monitor. All examples represent a 7.8-ft (2.4 m) dolphin at 6,000
ft (1829 m) altitude (above ground level, or AGL) and at a slant range
of 8,000 ft (2438 m). All four FOVs would be used during protected
species surveys. Based on the above discussion, the AC-130 aircrews
recommend a protected species survey altitude of 6,000 ft (1829 m),
using all sensors, for both day and night missions. NMFS concurs and
has made this modification to the 2008 IHA for Eglin's A-S gunnery
exercises.
The gunship sensor suite provides the best daytime and nighttime
performance in normal weather and sea conditions at this altitude
range. At lower altitudes, the sensors' area of coverage is smaller for
any given field of view. In addition, the sensors' effectiveness is
diminished due to magnification factors. For example, at an altitude of
1,000 ft (305 m), the 2X and Narrow FOV settings would cause over-
magnification, resulting in decreased ability to discriminate targets.
In addition to considerations of sensor performance, a 6,000-ft (1829-
m) survey altitude would be significantly safer than the current 1,000-
to 2,000-ft (305- to 610-m)range.
Therefore, based on Eglin AFB's request, NMFS is requiring Eglin to
implement a revised protocol for protected species surveys. The AC-130
gunship is to travel to a potential mission location at an altitude of
approximately 6,000 ft (1829 m). After arriving at the site, the
aircrew is to initiate a surface vessel and protected species survey at
the 6,000 ft (1829 m) altitude. The aircraft is to circle the target
site and continue the survey for at least 15 min. During the survey,
aircrews are to use the ANIAAQ-26 IDS to search the water surface for
vessels and marine species. The low-light TV system is to be used to
supplement the IDS system. For missions conducted during daylight
hours, the aircrew are to visually scan the water surface as well. The
live-fire phase of the mission will not begin until the site is
determined to be clear of vessels and protected species during the 15-
min survey. If a marine mammal, sea turtle or Sargassum bed is
identified during the pre-mission survey or during the mission, or if
any object besides the target is detected but cannot conclusively be
identified, the mission shall be paused or relocated as appropriate.
Aircrews shall conduct a post-mission survey for 5 min at an altitude
of 6,000 ft (1829 m) using the IDS and low-light television systems
and, for daytime missions, visual scans. Eglin AFB considers that the
protocol described here would provide effective mitigation to the risks
posed to protected species during A-S gunnery missions. In summary,
NMFS and Eglin AFB believe that sensor-based observation effectiveness
at 6,000 ft (1829 m) altitude is superior to visual survey
effectiveness at 1,000 ft (305 m) altitude and can replace the previous
mitigation measure.
Ramp-up Procedures
The 2006 IHA stipulates that ramp-up procedures are to be used
during A-S gunnery missions. This process involves beginning with the
smallest gunnery round, which has the least impact, and proceeding to
subsequently larger size rounds. The rationale is that this process may
allow animals to perceive steadily increasing noise levels and to
react, if necessary, before the noise reaches a threshold of
significance. The AC-130 gunship's weapons are used in two activity
phases. First, the guns are checked for functionality and calibrated.
This step requires an abbreviated period of live fire. After the guns
are determined to be ready for use, the mission proceeds under various
test and training scenarios. This second phase involves a more extended
period of live fire and can incorporate use of one or any combination
of the munitions available (25-, 40-, and 105-millimeter rounds). Eglin
AFB believes the 2006 IHA was somewhat ambiguous regarding whether the
ramp-up procedure was required only for the first
[[Page 78330]]
(calibrating) phase or throughout the entire mission. As a result,
Eglin AFB and NMFS concur that the ramp-up procedure should be required
for the initial gun calibration, and that after this phase the guns may
be fired in any order. Eglin and NMFS believe this process will allow
marine species the opportunity to respond to increasing noise levels.
If an animal leaves the area during ramp-up, it is unlikely to return
while the live-fire mission is proceeding. This protocol allows a more
realistic training experience. In combat situations, gunship crews
would not likely fire the complete ammunition load of a given caliber
gun before proceeding to another gun. Rather, a combination of guns
would likely be used as required by an evolving situation. An
additional benefit of this protocol is that mechanical or ammunition
problems on an individual gun can be resolved while live fire continues
with functioning weapons. This also diminishes the possibility of a
lengthy pause in live fire which, if greater than 10 min, would
necessitate Eglin's re-initiation of protected species surveys.
Sea State Restrictions
The 2006 IHA states that A-S gunnery missions are to be conducted
only in sea states of 3.5 or less on the Beaufort scale. A sea state of
3 or less, with a maximum wind speed of 10 knots (11.5 mph, 18.5 km/hr)
which is considered a gentle breeze, is fairly common off the Gulf
coast of Florida; however, a large portion of time can be categorized
as a sea state of 4 (1-16 knots (13-18 mph, 21-29 km/hr), which is
considered a moderate breeze). Therefore, the availability of the EGTTR
for air-to-surface gunship use is limited during anything over sea
state 3, especially during the winter. Eglin AFB requested gunship
missions be allowed in sea states up to 4 on the Beaufort scale. NMFS
concurs with this request. Under these conditions, whitecaps are fairly
frequent on the sea surface, but sea spray does not occur. Sea spray,
whitecaps, and large waves can decrease the effectiveness of LR
detection. However, A-S gunnery missions are not conducted if such
conditions make observation of the gunnery target (the flare)
problematic. Eglin and NMFS expect that marine species can be observed
in weather conditions that allow observation of the gunnery target
flare. As wave height is difficult to determine from the air,
particularly at night, Eglin believes that wind speed, as provided by
accepted forecasting outlets such as the National Weather Service, be
the determining factor for weather restrictions. NMFS concurs and has
made this modification to the 2008 IHA for Eglin's A-S gunnery
exercises.
In summary, NMFS concurs with the determinations made by Eglin AFB
and has made the following modifications to the mitigation and
monitoring measures in the Eglin AFB's A-S Gunnery IHA: (1) amended the
requirement for visual surveys to be conducted at a 6,000 ft (1,829 m)
altitude as the sensor-based observation effectiveness is superior to
visual survey effectiveness; (2) if there is an initial gun calibration
period, the ramp-up procedure is required for the initial gun
calibration, and that after this phase the guns may be fired in any
order; and (3) gunship missions may proceed when sea states are up to 4
on the Beaufort scale.
Determinations
For reasons described in this Federal Register document, NMFS has
determined that Eglin AFB's A-S gunnery activity will not result in the
mortality or injury of marine mammals (see Table 11) and, would result
in, at worst, a temporary elevation in hearing sensitivity (known as
TTS). As indicated in Table 11, Eglin AFB and NMFS estimate that up to
271 marine mammals may incur Level B (TTS) harassment annually. Also,
because these gunnery exercises result in multiple detonations, they
have the potential to also result in a temporary modification in
behavior by marine mammals at levels below TTS. Based on NMFS'
estimates, up to 25 marine mammals may experience a behavioral response
to these exercises during the time-frame of an IHA (see Table 11).
Finally, while one would generally expect the threshold for behavioral
modification to be lower than that causing TTS, due to a lack of
empirical information and data, a dual criteria for Level B behavioral
harassment cannot be developed. However, to ensure that takings are
covered by this IHA, NMFS estimates that approximately 1,000 marine
mammals of 16 stocks may incur Level B (harassment) takes during the 1-
year period of this IHA. NMFS believes that this number will be
significantly lower due the to the expected high effectiveness of the
mitigation measures required under the IHA.
NMFS believes therefore, that these A-S gunnery activities will
have a negligible impact on the affected species or stocks of marine
mammals. NMFS believes that the modifications to the current mitigation
requirements will not result in an increase in Level B harassment
levels estimated in 2006. The previously discussed modifications
(protected species survey altitude, ramp-up procedures, and sea state
conditions) to the mitigation measures in Eglin's 2006 IHA for the A-S
gunnery exercises in the EGTTR, is unlikely to change NMFS' 2006
determination. Finally, because Eglin AFB's activities will not take
place where subsistence uses of marine mammals occur, it would not have
an unmitigable adverse impact on the availability of marine mammals for
subsistence uses identified in MMPA section 101(a)(5)(D)(i), 16 USC
1371(a)(5)(D)(i).
Endangered Species Act (ESA)
Consultation under section 7 of the ESA on Eglin AFB's A-S Gunnery
Missions in the EGTTR was completed on December 18, 1998. Consultation
was reinitiated by Eglin AFB with NMFS on February 13, 2003, and
concluded on October 20, 2004. A Biological Opinion issued by NMFS on
October 20, 2004, concluded that the A-S gunnery exercises in the EGTTR
are unlikely to jeopardize the continued existence of species listed
under the ESA that are within the jurisdiction of NMFS or destroy or
adversely modify critical habitat. NMFS has determined that this
action, including the modifications to the mitigation and monitoring
measures, does not have effects beyond that which was analyzed in that
previous consultation, it is within the scope of that action and
reinitiation of consultation is not necessary.
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
The USAF made a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)
determination on August 18, 2003, based on information contained within
its November, 2002 Final PEA, that implementation of the subject action
is not a major Federal action having significant effects on the
environment within the meaning of NEPA. The USAF determined, therefore,
that an environmental impact statement (EIS) would not be prepared.
NMFS noted that Eglin AFB had prepared a Final PEA for the EGTTR
activity and made this Final PEA available upon request on January 23,
2006 (71 FR 3474). In accordance with NOAA Administrative Order 216-6
(Environmental Review Procedures for Implementing the National
Environmental Policy Act, May 20, 1999), NMFS reviewed the information
contained in Eglin AFB's Final PEA and, on May 1, 2006, determined that
Eglin AFB's Final PEA accurately and completely described the proposed
action, the alternatives to the proposed action, and the potential
impacts on marine mammals, endangered species, and other marine
[[Page 78331]]
life that could be impacted by the preferred alternative and the other
alternatives. Accordingly, NMFS adopted Eglin AFB's Final PEA under 40
CFR 1506.3 and made its own FONSI on May 16, 2006. The NMFS FONSI also
took into consideration updated data and information contained in NMFS'
Federal Register document noting issuance of an IHA to Eglin AFB for
this activity (71 FR 27695, May 12, 2006), and previous notices (71 FR
3474 (January 23, 2006); 70 FR 48675 (August 19, 2005)). Accordingly,
on May 1, 2006, NMFS adopted the USAF EA under 40 CFR 1506.3 and made
its own FONSI). This FONSI was signed on May 16, 2006.
As the issuance of a new IHA to Eglin AFB amends three of the
mitigation measures for reasons of practicality and safety, NMFS
reviewed Eglin AFB's 2002 Final PEA and determined that a new EA was
warranted to address: (1) the proposed modifications to the mitigation
and monitoring measures; (2) the use of 23 psi as a change in the
criterion for estimating potential impacts on marine mammals from
explosives; and (3) a cumulative effects analysis of potential
environmental impacts from all GOM activities (including Eglin mission
activities), which was not addressed in Eglin AFB's 2002 Final PEA.
Therefore, NMFS has prepared a new EA and issued a FONSI for this
action. Based on these findings, NMFS has determined that it is not
necessary to complete an EIS for the issuance of an IHA to Eglin AFB
for this activity.
Authorization
NMFS has issued an IHA to Eglin AFB for conducting A-S gunnery
exercises within the EGTTR in the northern GOM for a 1-year period,
provided the mitigation, monitoring, and reporting requirements are
undertaken.
Dated: December 11, 2008.
James H. Lecky,
Director, Office of Protected Resources, National Marine Fisheries
Service.
[FR Doc. E8-30359 Filed 12-19-08; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 3510-22-S